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BULLETIN  NO.  39 


BUREAU  OF  EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH 
COLLEGE  OF  EDUCATION 


TWO 

ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  CURRICULUM 

CONSTRUCTION 

By 

Walter  S.  Monroe 
Director,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 

Darwin  A.  Hindman 
The  Ohio  State  University,  Cohimbus,  Ohio 

and 

Roy  S.  Lundjn 

Principal,  Community  High  School,  Staunton,  Illinois 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS,  URBANA 

1928 


i70 
v^o,  59 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface 5 

Chapter  I.  The  General  Theory  of  Curriculum 

Construction 7 

Chapter  II.  Constructing  a  Curriculum  in  Physical 

Education  FOR  Boys  ON  THE  High-School  Level     ...     14 

Chapter  III.  Constructing  a  Curriculum  in  Horticulture 

FOR  the  High  School ZZ 


PREFACE 

The  general  theory  of  curriculum  construction  has  re- 
ceived extensive  consideration  in  our  educational  literature 
during  the  past  ten  years.  Those  who  undertake  the  con- 
struction of  a  curriculum  usually  find  it  very  difficult  to 
apply  this  general  theory  because  it  is  necessary  to  effect 
some  adaptation  to  the  particular  field  under  consideration. 
This  bulletin  reports  in  a  somewhat  summary  form  the  ap- 
plication of  a  general  procedure  of  curriculum  construction 
to  two  fields  of  instruction  on  the  high-school  level.  The 
application  to  physical  education  was  made  by  Mr.  Darwin 
A.  Hindman  of  Ohio  State  Universit}';  the  one  to  horticul- 
ture by  Mr.  Roy  S.  Lundin,  Principal,  Community  High 
School,  Staunton,  Illinois.  In  both  cases  the  work  was  done 
under  the  immediate  guidance  of  the  Director  of  the  Bureau 
of  Educational  Research  while  these  men  were  graduate 
students  at  the  University  of  Illinois.  The  original  manu- 
scripts were  accepted  as  theses  in  partial  fulfillment  of  the 
requirements  for  the  master's  degree. 

In  preparing  this  bulletin  the  Director  of  the  Bureau  of 
Educational  Research  has  utilized  only  those  portions  of 
these  theses  that  seemed  to  be  essential  in  describing  the 
method  of  working  out  the  curriculum.  No  attempt  has 
been  made  to  publish  the  curricula  formulated  by  these  stu- 
dents. A  reader  who  is  interested  in  the  complete  theses 
will  find  them  in  the  Library  of  the  University  of  Illinois. 

Walter  S.  AIonroe,  Director. 
November  22,  1927. 


TWO  ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  CURRICULUM 
CONSTRUCTION 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  GENERAL  THEORY  OF  CURRICULUM 
CONSTRUCTION 

The  educative  process.  The  child  learns  as  the  result  of  his  own 
activities — perceiving,  thinking,  doing,  and  feeling.  The  outcomes  of 
these  activities  are  designated  as  controls  of  conduct  (abilities),  or 
achievements.  Most  of  the  learning  activities  in  school  occur  in  re- 
sponse to  exercises  set  by  the  teacher  and  are  based  on  or  have  to  do 
with  books,  pictures,  apparatus,  and  the  like.  These  are  called  materials 
of  instruction.  A  child's  achievement — i.e.,  what  he  learns — is  de- 
termined in  part  by  the  materials  of  instruction  provided  for  his  use. 
The  learning  exercises  he  is  asked  to  do  and  the  instructional  pro- 
cedures to  which  he  is  subjected  are  also  potent  factors,  but  they  are 
partially  determined  by  the  materials  of  instruction.  Hence  the  ma- 
terials of  instruction  sustain  an  important  relation  to  the  educative 
process  and  the  achievements  of  pupils. 

The  problem  of  curriculum  construction.  The  central  problem  of 
curriculum  construction  is  to  select  appropriate  materials  of  instruc- 
tion. Since  materials  of  instruction  and  learning  exercises  are  inti- 
mately related,  the  curriculum-maker  sometimes  specifies  the  former 
by  enumerating  the  exercises  to  be  used.  Hence  the  central  problem 
of  curriculum  construction  may  be  described  also  as  devising  and 
selecting  the  learning  exercises  to  be  used. 

This  brief  description  of  the  central  problem  of  curriculum  con- 
struction does  not  adequately  indicate  what  the  curriculum-maker  has 
to  do.  In  order  to  determme  the  materials  of  instruction  or  learning 
exercises,  it  is  necessary  to  determine  first  what  the  children  should 
learn;  that  is,  the  objectives  of  the  school.  Then  the  curriculum- 
maker  faces  the  task  of  determining  the  learning  activities  required  for 
the  attainment  of  the  controls  of  conduct  specified  as  objectives.  Hence 
the  logical  steps  in  the  construction  of  a  curriculum  are :  ( 1 )  deter- 
mination of  objectives  or  controls  of  conduct  to  be  acquired  by  the 
oupils ;  (2)  determination  of  the  learning  activities  required  for  this 
purpose;  (3)  determination  of  the  materials  of  instruction  and  learn- 
ng  exercises  that  will  form  an  efficient  basis  for  the  necessary  learning 
ictivities. 


8  Bulletin  Xo.  39 

Variation  in  terms  in  which  objectives  may  be  conceived.  Although 
objectives  were  defined  in  the  preceding  paragraph  as  the  controls  of 
conduct  that  the  children  are  expected  to  acquire,  the  term  needs  fur- 
ther explanation.  The  word  objective  in  education  is  an  adaptation  of 
the  military  term.  A  military  objective  is  a  "point,"  the  occupancy  or 
capture  of  which  is  set  by  those  in  command  as  the  goal  for  the  ad- 
vance of  troops.  For  example,  the  city  of  Paris  was  the  most  im- 
portant objective  of  the  German  army  during  the  World  War. 
Similarl}-  in  education,  the  learning  activities  in  which  children  engage 
have  or  should  have  objectives.  In  describing  educational  objectives, 
writers  have  differed  in  their  use  of  terms.  The  confusion  resulting 
from  such  variation  in  terminology'  has  been  accentuated  by  the  failure 
to  define  clearly  the  terms  used.  In  order  to  give  the  reader  a  proper 
orientation,  attention  is  called  to  three  points  of  view. 

1.  Remote  versus  immediate  objectives.  The  city  of  Paris  was  an 
objective  for  the  German  army.  But  Paris  was  a  long  distance  away, 
and  before  it  could  be  reached,  other  positions  had  to  be  taken  and 
these  positions  became  in  military  language  "secondary  objectives." 
Reaching  a  secondary  objective  required  first  reaching  still  nearer  ones, 
and  these,  yet  nearer  objectives,  and  so  on.  At  the  other  end  of  the 
scale,  the  taking  of  Paris  was  itself  secondary'  to  a  larger  objective,  and 
this  to  a  larger  and  so  on  until  the  ultimate  objective  is  lost  in  meta- 
physical speculation. 

In  education,  likewise,  it  must  be  recognized  that  there  can  be 
objectives,  and  sub-objectives,  and  super-objectives  of  all  degrees.  The 
objective  in  today's  arithmetic  lesson  is  the  correct  solution  of  certain 
problems.  But  why?  Because  it  contributes  to  the  more  remote  ob- 
jective, the  ability  to  solve  other  problems.  But  why  the  ability  to  solve 
problems?  Because  it  is  necessary  to  the  objective  of  earning  a  living. 
But  why  earn  a  living?  Because  it  contributes  to  a  further  objective, 
and  this  one  to  others,  and  so  on  until  one  finds  himself  facing  the 
problem  of  human  destiny.  The  objectives  mentioned  in  this  illustra- 
tion by  no  means  exhaust  the  possibilities,  for  between  any  two  of 
those  mentioned  others  can  easily  be  thought  of,  and  the  first  objective 
in  the  series  can  easih^  be  made  to  yield  subsidiary  ones,  so  that  it  is 
possible  to  think  of  objectives  of  many  degrees  of  remoteness  or  near- 
ness. For  some  purposes  it  is  helpful  to  classif}'  objectives  as  ultimate 
or  immediate,  but  when  doing  so  it  is  necessary  to  remember  that  the 
remoteness  or  nearness  of  an  objective  is  a  relative  rather  than  an  I; 
absolute  characteristic. 


Curriculum  Construction  9 

2.  General  versus  specific  objectives.  A  second  relation  between 
objectives  is  that  some  may  be  subdivisions  of  others ;  the  same  ob- 
jective may  be  stated  in  one  large  unit  or  in  a  number  of  small  ones. 
"Caring  for  one's  health"  is  no  more  remote  than  "brushing  one's 
teeth  twice  daily";  it  is  merely  more  general,  more  inclusive.  Any 
division  of  character  or  of  conduct  can,  in  principle  at  least,  be  divided 
into  many  constituents  which  differ  from  the  larger  unit  only  in  being 
more  specific  and  less  inclusive.  Failure  to  maintain  the  distinction 
between  the  variation  in  size  of  unit  and  the  variation  in  degree  of 
remoteness  is  an  important  cause  of  confusion  in  the  consideration  of 
objectives. 

3.  Conduct  objectives  versus  control  objectives.  The  outcomes 
of  learning  activity  are  subjective  qualities  which  function  as  controls 
of  later  conduct.  In  considering  objectives,  one  may  think  either  of 
the  subjective  controls  of  conduct  or  of  the  conduct  which  they  con- 
trol. For  example,  one  may  say  that  an  objective  is  the  performance 
by  the  pupil  (in  adult  life)  of  the  activities  which  constitute  good 
citizenship,  or  that  the  objective  is  the  possession  by  the  student  of  the 
subjective  equipment  which  will  ensure  such  conduct  on  his  part.  One 
may  state  as  an  objective:  "use  of  grammatically  correct  language,"  or 
"ability  and  disposition  to  use  grammatically  correct  language."  To 
give  an  example  of  a  more  specific  objective :  one  may  say  an  objective 
of  arithmetic  is  "to  respond  with  'twelve'  whenever  the  stimulus 
'square-root  of  144'  is  received,"  or  he  may  say  it  is  "the  habit  of 
responding  with  'twelve'  whenever  the  stimulus  'square-root  of  144'  is 
received."  Similarly  for  any  conduct  objective  of  any  degree  of 
generalness,  or  of  any  degree  of  remoteness,  it  is  possible  to  think 
of  corresponding  control  objectives  consisting  of  all  the  subjective 
qualities  which  are  necessary  in  order  to  bring  about  the  given  conduct 
objective. 

Consideration  of  remote  objectives  required  because  education  in 
school  is  preparation  for  adult  life.  Some  writers  insist  that  the 
function  of  the  school  is  to  assist  and  direct  pupils  in  realizing  their 
present  purposes  rather  than  in  attaining  some  remote  good.  How- 
ever, the  principal  function  of  the  secondary  school  (and  probably  of 
other  schools  as  well)  is  to  prepare  youth  for  adult  life.  This  principle 
is  expressed  by  saying  that  the  objective  of  the  high  school  is  the  best 
possible  adult  life.^  Hence  the  consideration  of  ultimate  objectives  is 
inevitable.  We  must  look  toward  the  future,  but  in  doing  so,  we  should 
not  overlook  the  more  immediate  objectives. 


'This  is,   of  course,   a  conduct   objective,   expressed   in  the  most   general   terms  possible. 


10  Bulletin  No.  39 

General  character  of  immediate  objectives.  It  has  been  explained 
above  that  for  an}-  unit  in  terms  of  which  conduct  may  be  described, 
there  is  a  control  objective  which  consists  of  all  the  subjective  equip- 
ment necessary  to  ensure  such  conduct.  In  order  to  understand  the 
nature  of  this  subjective  equipment,  which  becomes  an  immediate 
objective,  it  is  helpful  to  recognize  certain  distinctions.  The  following 
analysis  of  controls  of  conduct  has  been  proposed : 

I.  Specific  habits:  motor  skills  and  fixed  associations.  Under  this  head  are 
placed  all  those  outcomes  of  learning  activity  that  function  as  automatic  or 
largely  mechanical  controls  of  conduct. 

II.  Knowledge  or  adaptive  controls  of  conduct.  Under  the  head  of  knowl- 
edge are  grouped  those  controls  of  conduct  (abilities)  that  function  in  over- 
coming difficulties  presented  by  new  situations. 

III.  General  patterns  of  conduct.  These  include  ideals,  attitudes,  interests, 
and  tastes.  Their  general  character  is  suggested  by  the  ideal  which  may  be 
thought  of  as  a  general  pattern  to  which  conduct  will  conform  in  a  variety  of 
situations." 

The  controls  of  conduct  usually  classified  under  these  rubrics  do 
not  alone  determine  what  behavior  shall  be.  They  function  on  a 
foundation  of  general  capacities  and  powers.  General  organic  effi- 
ciency, general  muscular  strength,  and  general  intelligence  are  also 
controls  of  conduct.  They  might  be  considered  as  elements  of  the 
controls  of  conduct  usually  classified  as  specific  habits,  knowledge,  or 
general  patterns  of  conduct,  but  for  some  purposes  it  seems  desirable 
to  recognize  them  as  separate  controls  of  conduct.  Consequently,  in 
the  exposition  of  the  objectives  of  a  curriculum  in  physical  education, 
these  controls  of  conduct  will  be  designated  as  "foundational"  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  three  rubrics  given  above  which  will  be  called 
"functional."    These  terms  are  suggested  by  Bobbitt : 

The  foundational  education  is  the  unfoldment  of  the  powers  of  the  indi- 
vidual without  consciousness  of  the  relation  of  these  powers  to  specific  functions. 
The  child  at  play,  for  example,  is  having  experiences  for  the  joy  of  the  experi- 
ences .  .  .  And  yet  his  experiences  are  conditioning — and  in  a  sense,  produc- 
ing— his  general  growth :  physical,  social,  intellectual,  aesthetic,  moral  .  .  . 
the  experiences  are  to  be  carefully  conditioned  and  guided  by  the  teachers  in 
such  a  way  that  they  will  lead  to  growth  along  physical,  social  and  aesthetic  lines 
of  sorts  that  are  needed  as  foundations  of  the  specific  abilities  that  are  to  be 
built  thereon.' 

Approach  to  the  determination  of  objectives.  The  problein  of 
determining  immediate  objectives  is  that  of  determining  just  which 
particular  foundational  and  functional  controls  of  conduct  are  needed 
for  desirable  adult  life.  The  construction  of  a  curriculum  in  the  field 
of  a  particular  school  subject  is  restricted  to  the  determining  of  those 


-Monroe,  Walter  S.  Directing  Learning  in  the  High  School.  Garden  City,  New  York: 
Doubleday,  Page  and  Company,    1927,  p.   30-31. 

'Bobbitt,  Franklin.  How  to  Make  a  Curriculum.  Boston:  Houghton  Mifflin  Company, 
1924,  Chapter  V. 


Curriculum  Construction  11 

objectives  that  may  be  engendered  in  part  or  wholly  by  means  of 
materials  of  instruction  in  that  field.  A  preliminary  step  in  the  de- 
termination of  immediate  objectives  is  to  formulate  a  description  of  the 
kind  of  adult  life  that  is  desirable.  This  has  been  done  innumerable 
times,  in  extremely  various  terms,  and  with  all  degrees  of  generality. 
The  following  statement  is  typical : 

Education  is  the  development  of  the  individual  b}-  means  of  his  own 
activity,  in  response  to  social  influences,  toward  a  realization  of  the  values  of 
life,  and  participation  in  the  development  of  a  society  where  the  vakies  of  life 
will  be  realized  by  each  in  proportion  to  his  capacity  for  such  realization.'' 

Such  a  general  description  of  desirable  adult  life  should  be  kept  in 

mind  as  a  guiding  influence,  but  in  the  practical  task  of  curriculum 

construction,  it  furnishes  little  direct  aid.     It  is  necessary  that  adult 

conduct  be  analyzed  and  re-analyzed  until  units  of  working  size  are 

reached.     Bobbitt  has  proposed  the  following  ten  groups  of  activities : 

1.  Language  activities,  social  intercommunication 

2.  Health  activities 

3.  Citizenship  activities 

4.  General  social  activities — meeting  and  mingling  with  others 

5.  Spare-time  activities,  amusements,  recreations 

6.  Keeping  one's  self  mentally  fit — analogous  to  the  health 

activities  of  keeping  one's  self  pliA'sicalh'  fit 

7.  Religious  activities 

8.  Parental  activities,  the  upbringing  of  children,  the  main- 

tenance of  a  proper  home  life 

9.  Unspecialized  or  non-vocational  practical  activities 
10.  The  labors  of  one's  calling^ 

Courtis  has  given  a  slightly  different  analysis : 

1.  The  nurturing  activities — care  of  the  immature,  the  ill,  the 

unfortunate,  the  handicapped,  the  vicious 

2.  The  maintenance  activities — concerned  with  the  consump- 

tion of  food,  clothing,  shelter,  specialized  service,  etc. 

3.  The  recreational  activities  of  leisure  hours 

4.  The  home-making  activities  of  choosing  mates,  begetting 

children  and  raising  them 

5.  The  production  activities,  concerned  with  the  preparation 

of  food,  clothing,  shelter,  specialized  service,  etc. 


^From  a  lecture  by  Professor  E.  C.  Hayes,  University  of  Illinois.  The  idea  is  given  in 
1  expanded  form,  though  not  the  definition  itself,  in:  Hayes,  Edward  Gary.  Introduction  to 
ithe  Study  of  Sociology.  New  York:  D.  Appleton  and  Company,  1918,  Chapter  XXXV.  This 
chapter  is  an  unusually  valuable  and  stimulating  discussion  of  education  with  emphasis, 
I  naturally,  on  the  sociological  aspects. 
lo-,,  ^Bobbitt,  Franklin.  How  to  Make  a  Curriculum.  Boston:  Houghton  Mifflin  Company, 
1924,  p.  8.  t      j< 


12  Bulletin  No.  39 

6.  The  self-improvement  activities,  of  study,  reflection,  wor- 

ship, etc. 

7.  Communication 

8.  Transportation  and  exchange 

9.  Government" 

A  committee  of  the  North  Central  Association  of  Colleges  and 
Secondary  Schools  suggests  that  the  activities  of  life  may  be  divided 
into  four  groups : 

1.  To  maintain  health  and  physical  fitness 

2.  To  use  leisure  time  in  right  ways 

3.  To  engage  successfully  in  vocational  activities 

4.  To  sustain  successfully  certain  definite  relationships  such 

as  domestic,  community,  civic,  and  the  like' 

Further  analysis  necessary  for  the  determination  of  functional 
objectives.  The  proper  performance  of  the  activities  of  any  one  of 
the  above  three  lists  could  be  considered  to  express,  in  very  large  units, 
the  conduct  objectives  of  education.  The  foundational  controls,  being 
very  general  in  their  scope,  and  influencing  practically  all  of  life  rather 
than  specific  parts  of  it,  do  not  require  any  further  analysis  of  life 
activity  for  their  determination.  The  functional  controls  of  conduct, 
on  the  other  hand,  exert  their  influence  over  limited  sections  of  life 
activity — in  some  cases  over  only  very  small  and  specific  acts.  For 
their  determination,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  that  one  consider  the 
smaller  and  smaller  units  into  which  life  activity  can  be  analyzed. 
Accordingly,  the  next  step  in  curriculum  construction  is  to  extend  the 
analysis  of  adult  life  by  subdividing  the  large  units  in  terms  of  which 
the  first  analysis  is  expressed.  The  further  this  analysis  is  extended, 
the  clearer  will  be  the  curriculum-maker's  concept  of  the  conduct  ob- 
jectives. 

Objective  methods  of  curriculum  construction  versus  systematic 
and  critical  judgment.  Our  present  curricula  are  frequently  criticized 
on  the  grounds  that  they  represent  opinion.  As  a  result  of  this  criti- 
cism there  have  been  many  attempts  to  base  the  construction  of  a 
curriculum  upon  objective  data ;  i.e.,  to  employ  procedures  such  that  the 
resulting  curriculum  would  be  relatively  independent  of  the  opinions  of 
its  maker.'  The  illustrations  of  curriculum  construction  described  in 
the  following  chapters  involve  little  or  no  use  of  objective  data.     The 


'Courtis,  S.  A.  "Reading  Between  the  Lines,"  Twenty-Sixth  Yearbook  of  the  National 
Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  II.  Bloomington,  Illinois:  Public  School  Publishing 
Company,    1926,  p.  97. 

'"Report  on  Standards  for  Reorganization  of  Secondary  School  Curricula,  1924."  North 
Central  Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools.     March  20,   21,   22,    192+,  p.   6. 

^See  p.   34. 


Curriculum  Construction  13 

procedure  employed  may  be  described  as  "systematic  and  critical  judg- 
ment." The  general  plan  has  been  described  in  the  preceding  pages.  In 
both  cases,  the  first  major  step  was  to  formulate  an  analytical  descrip- 
tion of  the  ultimate  or  conduct  objectives  for  which  the  proposed 
curriculum  was  considered  to  contribute  equipment.  From  these  con- 
duct objectives,  the  immediate  or  control  objectives  were  derived.  The 
last  two  steps  include  the  predicting  of  the  learning  activities  necessary 
for  acquiring  the  specified  controls  of  conduct,  and  the  learning  exer- 
cises that  will  serve  as  efficient  bases  for  these  activities. 

Certain  objective  data  would  have  been  helpful  in  carrying  out 
these  steps,  but  "systematic,  critical  judgment"  is  believed  to  possess 
merit.  Another  curriculum-maker  following  the  same  procedure  and 
governed  by  the  same  point  of  view  probably  would  produce  a  some- 
what different  list  of  learning  exercises,  but  it  is  difficult  to  believe 
that  many  of  the  differences  would  be  fundamental.  In  any  case, 
relatively  few  objective  data  are  available  for  the  teacher,  principal,  or 
superintendent  who  faces  the  task  of  constructing  a  curriculum  for 
next  year.  Hence  he  is  forced  to  rely  largely  upon  "systematic,  critical 
judgment." 


CHAPTER  II 

CONSTRUCTING  A  CURRICULUM  IN  PHYSICAL  EDUCA- 
TION FOR  BOYS  ON  THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  LEVEL 

Two  general  classes  of  objectives.  In  dealing  with  the  objectives 
of  physical  education  it  appears  helpful  to  distinguish  between  those 
that  are  foundational  and  those  designated  as  functional,^  However, 
the  difference  between  foundational  objectives  and  functional  objectives 
is  not  so  distinct  as  may  at  first  appear.  A  human  being  is  a  unit,  and 
efforts  to  divide  him  into  mind,  body,  and  spirit,  or  into  faculties  and 
processes,  are  certain  to  encounter  difficulties  if  they  are  carried  far 
enough.  The  foundational  controls  of  conduct  are  often  spoken  of  as 
being  the  product  of  "natural  growth  and  development."  They  are 
probably  no  more  the  result  of  growth  and  development  than  are 
specific  controls,  and  the  word  "natural"  is  most  likely  used  as  a  result 
of  a  misapprehension.  There  is  one  sense,  however,  in  which  they  are 
more  natural  than  the  functional  controls.  Nature  herself  has  provided 
the  individual  with  instinctive  urges  to  engage  in  the  educational  activ- 
ities for  the  engendering  of  these  controls  of  conduct.  Such  activities 
are  play. 

Attempts  to  analyze  fundamental  powers  and  abilities  difficult  and 
misleading.  Foundational  controls  of  conduct  are  so  fundamental  and 
so  general  in  their  scope  that  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  their  exact 
nature  or  to  analyze  them  into  small  units.  Functional  controls  of 
conduct,  on  the  other  hand,  are  more  easily  analyzed  into  small  and 
relatively  specific  constituents.  The  results  are  a  short  and  incon- 
spicuous list  of  foundational  objectives  and  a  longer  and  more  impos- 
ing list  of  functional  objectives.  A  cursory  reading  of  the  two  sets  of 
objectives  is  likely  to  give  a  false  impression  of  their  relative  im- 
portance. As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  foundational  objectives  of  physical 
education  are  overwhelmingh^  more  important  than  the  functional. 
Physical  education  has  its  greatest  duty  to  perform  in  replacing  the 
natural  work  and  play  activities  that  formerly  occupied  so  much  of  the 
life  of  children  and  securing  if  possible  a  better  fundamental  training 
and  development. 

Relative  importance  of  foundational  controls  of  conduct  not  so 
great  at  high-school  age  as  in  earlier  years.  It  must  be  recognized, 
however,  that  the  greatest  need  for  the  fundamental  physical,  intel- 
lectual, and  social  development  from  physical  education  is  in  the  early 


^See  p.   10  for  a  description  of  these  types. 

14 


Curriculum  Construction  15 

years  of  life,  probably  before  school  age.  When  a  child  has  reached 
high-school  age  he  has  lost  forever  the  chance  for  much  of  the  benefit 
which  he  might  have  received  from  physical  education  some  years 
earlier.  Also,  it  is  very  important  that  physical  education  in  high  school 
engender  certain  specific  controls  of  conduct.  This  is  not  saying  that 
the  foundational  objectives  have  become  unimportant;  they  are  still 
important,  probably  predominantly  so.  They  are  merely  much  less  im- 
portant, and  the  functional  controls  more  important,  than  on  the  ele- 
mentary-school level. 

Points  of  emphasis  in  foundational  objectives.  It  has  already 
been  stated  that  our  knowledge  of  foundational  controls  of  conduct  is 
so  limited  and  their  nature  is  so  peculiar,  that  it  is  difficult  and  mis- 
leading to  attempt  their  complete  description  or  analysis.  However,  it 
seems  necessary  as  a  guide  for  determining  the  general  character  of 
the  learning  activities,  to  indicate  the  foundational  objectives  that 
should  be  emphasized.  The  following  outline  is  given,  then,  not  with 
the  idea  that  it  is  a  complete  analysis  of  the  desirable  foundational  out- 
comes of  physical  education,  but  with  the  hope  that  physical  education 
carried  on  so  as  to  achieve  these  objectives  will  include  the  best  possible 
"broad  range  of  diversified  activity." 

Foundational  objectives  of  physical  education.  The  general  na- 
ture of  the  foundational  objectives  in  physical  education  is  indicated 
in  the  following  outline:^ 

A.  Organic  strength,  efficiency,  and  skill 

1.  Power  and  efficiency  of  the  "vital"  organs:  circulatory, 

respiratory,  digestive,  and  eliminative 

2.  Nervous  strength  and  efficiency 

3.  Strength  and  endurance  of  the  fundamental  muscles 

4.  General  skill  of  the  fundamental  muscles 

B.  Foundational  knowledge 

1.  Knowledge  of  the  world  which  comes  from  dealing  with 
it  in  a  motor  way 


-It  is  clear  that  there  is  a  great  difference  between  the  objectives  of  group  A  and  those 
of  group  B,  and  it  seems  also  that  the  former  group  are  foundational  in  a  sense  in  which  the 
latter  are  not.  Accordingly,  a  good  case  can  be  made  for  separating  the  two  groups,  including 
group  B  with  the  functional  objectives,  or  making  them  a  third  class.  However,  after  long 
and  careful  thought  and  with  some  misgiving,  it  has  been  decided  to  leave  them  where  they 
are,  on  the  following  grounds:  (1)  The  objectives  of  group  B  must  be  included  somewhere. 
An  important  duty  of  physical  education  is  to  see  that  children  have  the  abundant  and  varied 
motor  experience  which  will  enable  them  to  learn  of  the  material  world,  of  their  own  bodies, 
and  of  their  companions.  (2)  These  objectives  cannot  be  included  with  the  functional 
objectives.  All  objectives  are,  of  course,  functional,  but  the  ones  here  called  functional  in  a 
restricted  sense  are  those  controls  of  conduct  which  have  specific  functions  to  perform,  while 
the  objectives  of  group  B  above  are  to  be  engendered  without  any  activity  in  mind  much 
more  specific  than  in  the  case  of  organic  efficiency.  (3)  As  bases  for  the  selection  of  learn- 
ing exercises,  the  two  groups  above  have  much  in  common.  They  demand  educational  experi- 
ence of  a  certain  type,  not  of  an  exact  kind. 


16  Bulletin  No.  39 

2.  "Judgment  in  the  speed,  range,  vigor,  and  timing  of 

movements"^ 

3.  Knowledge  of  the  uses  and  Hmits  of  one's  own  power 

4.  Knowledge  of  one's  human  environment 
Justification  of  the  objectives  of  organic  strength,  efficiency,  and 

skill.  The  foundational  objectives  classed  under  A  might  be  considered 
as  the  results  of  proper  growth  and  development  of  bodily  mechanisms 
in  structure  and  function.  The  importance  of  physical  education  for 
this  development  depends  on  two  facts :  first,  that  proper  growth  and 
development  demand  exercise  of  function;  second,  that  the  only  way, 
under  ordinary  conditions,  to  regulate  the  exercise  of  function  of  the 
vital  organs  and  the  nerve  centers  is  to  reach  them  indirectly  through 
the  exercise  of  the  muscles. 

Man  is  provided  by  heredit}-  with  certain  growth  tendencies  or 
potentialities.  Proper  growth,  however,  requires  other  conditions  than 
the  mere  potentiality.  Potential  growth  will  become  actual  only  with 
proper  diet,  proper  rest,  proper  elimination,  and  other  essential  condi- 
tions. It  is  a  fundamental  law  of  growth  that  development  of  the 
organism  in  structure  and  function  requires  exercise  of  function.  Every 
one  understands  that,  if  the  arm  of  an  infant  should  be  strapped  so 
that  the  muscles  of  this  arm  could  not  be  used,  the  muscles  would  not 
grow  and  would  soon  lose  all  power  to  function.  It  is  not  always  so 
clearly  understood  that  the  same  statement  is  true  of  other  functions 
and  other  parts  of  the  body.  A  child's  stomach  that  does  not  have 
exercise  in  performing  its  natural  function  will  not  develop  as  a 
stomach  should.  A  similar  statement  can  be  made  for  all  parts  of  the 
body,  including  the  digestive,  respiratory,  and  circulatory  systems,  and, 
let  it  not  be  forgotten,  the  nervous  system.*  The  development  of  the 
visceral  organs  and  of  the  fundamental  nerve  centers  depends  upon 
their  being  stimulated  to  vigorous  normal  functioning  in  the  only  way 
in  which  they  can  be  so  stimulated ;  viz.,  by  a  demand  on  the  part 
of  the  muscles  for  their  services  in  enabling  the  muscles  to  perform 
their  work. 

Justification  of  the  objectives  under  "foundational  knowledge." 
The  expressions  used  in  stating  the  objectives  under  "fundamental 
knowledge"  are  borrowed  largely  from  John  Dewey.  His  belief  in  the 
importance  of  varied  motor  and  sense  experience  for  the  acquiring  of 
this  fundamental  kind  of  knowledge  is  expressed  in  many  passages,  of 
which  the  following  may  be  taken  as  a  good  sample : 


^Quotation  from  an  unknown  source. 

^There  are  a  few  apparent  exceptions  to  this  rule,  notably  the  reproductive  system. 
The  fact  is,  however,  that  the  developing  reproductive  system  has  no  reproductive  function  to 
perform;   functioning  does  not  appear  until  development  is  complete. 


Curriculum  Construction  17 

Physical  growth  is  not  identical  with  mental  growth,  but  the  two  co:ncide 
in  time,  and  normally  the  latter  is  impossible  without  the  former.  If  we  have 
reverence  for  childhood,  our  first  specific  rule  is  to  make  sure  of  a  healthy 
bodily  development.  Even  apart  from  its  intrinsic  value  as  a  source  of  efficient 
action  and  of  happiness,  the  proper  development  of  the  mind  directly  depends 
upon  the  proper  use  of  the  muscles  and  the  senses.  The  organs  of  action  and  of 
reception  are  indispensable  for  getting  into  relation  with  the  materials  of 
knowledge.  .  .  .  Consequently  the  activities  of  the  child  are  not  so  aimless  as 
they  seem  to  adults,  but  are  the  means  by  which  he  becomes  acquainted  with  his 
world  and  by  which  he  also  learns  the  use  and  limits  of  his  own  powers.^ 

The  use  of  the  muscles  and  of  the  senses  which  are  so  necessary 
for  the  foundations  of  knowledge  in  the  child  are  obtained  very  largely 
through  play.  Not  all  play,  of  course,  comes  within  the  definition  of 
physical  education.  Much  play  is  quiet  and  involves  little  or  no  big- 
muscle  activity.  But  for  the  child  and  youth,  play  is  predominantly  of 
the  physical-education  kind,  involving  big-muscle  activity,  but  with 
large  sensory,  intellectual,  emotional,  and  social  elements.  Thus  it  is 
that  second  only  to  the  duty  of  providing  a  needed  condition  for  proper 
organic  development  is  the  duty  of  physical  education  to  provide  for 
boys  and  girls  an  abundance  of  intense  and  varied  play  experience. 

The  functional  objectives  of  physical  education.  As  pointed  out 
in  Chapter  P  the  determination  of  the  functional  objectives  is  ap- 
proached by  effecting  an  analysis  of  out-of -school  life.  The  analyses 
suggested  by  Bobbitt  and  others  do  not  appear  to  be  very  helpful  as  a 
basis  for  determining  the  functional  objectives  within  the  field  of 
physical  education.  Consequently  the  following  is  proposed  as  a  list 
of  the  principal  fields  of  adult  activity  for  which  high-school  physical 
education  should  be  expected  to  engender  functional  controls  of  con- 
duct : 

I.  The  activities  of  maintaining  health  and  physical  efficiency 
II.  Spare  time  activities,  amusements,  recreations 

III.  General  social  activities — meeting  and  mingling  with  others 

IV.  Emergency  activities  requiring  certain  special  strengths  and 
skills 

V.  Parental  activities — the  upbringing  of  children^ 
It  now  remains  to  consider  each  of  these  groups  of  activities  in 
order  and  to  list  the  controls  of  conduct  which  it  is  believed  physical 
education  can  contribute  to  their  proper  performance  :^ 


^Dewey,  John,  and  Dewey,  Evelyn.  Schools  of  Tomorrow.  New  York:  E.  P.  Button 
'and  Company,   1915,  p.  7-8. 

^Sec  p.   11. 

'Adapted  from:  Bobbitt,  Franklin.  Hoiv  to  Make  a  Curriculum.  Boston:  Houghton 
Mifflin  Company,  1924,  p.  910.  All  of  the  rubrics  except  IV  are  used  by  Bobbitt.  Rubric  IV 
was  suggested  by  the  following  reference:  "Aims  and  Scope  of  Physical  Education,"  American 
Physical  Education   Review,   25:254-261,   June,    1920. 

*There  is  no  significance  in  the  order  in  which  the  controls  of  conduct  are  mentioned. 


18  Bulletin  No.  39 

I.  The  activities  of  maintaining  health  and  physical  efficiency 

1.  The  health  ideal  (including  not  onh'  a  strong  feeling  of  satis- 

faction in  the  possession  of  health  and  of  annoyance  at 
its  lack,  but  also  a  strong  feeling  of  satisfaction  when 
doing  one's  best  to  maintain  health  and  of  insufferable 
annoyance  when  not  doing  so) 

2.  The  practice  of   setting  aside  a  regular  time  each  day   for 

physical  exercise 

3.  Knowledge  of  the  hygienic  values  of  different  forms  of  phy- 

sical-education activity 

4.  Knowledge  of  the  proper  relation  between  time  of  exercise 

and  time  of  meals 

5.  An  attitude  of  pride  in  an  erect  and  self-respecting  carriage 

of  the  body 

6.  Knowledge  of  the  distinction  between  good  posture  and  poor, 

in  one's  self  and  in  others 

7.  Knowledge  of  the  value  of  a  general  vigorous  workout  for  the 

prevention  or  relief  of  constipation 

8.  Ability  to  use  abdomen-kneading  exercises  for  the  prevention 

or  relief  of  constipation 

9.  Ability  to  control  sex  functions  and  emotions  in  the  interest  of 

health 

10.  Abilit}'  to  secure  vigorous  and  pleasurable  exercise  from  using 

a  medicine  ball 

11.  Ability  to  use  correctly  one  good  set  of  calisthenic  exercises 

12.  Ability  to  use  for  the  double  purpose  of  maintaining  health 

and  enjoying  leisure  time  a  variety  of  physical-education 
.   activities   for  different   conditions   of  weather,   available 
companions,  and  other  factors 
12A.  Specifically,  the  ability  to  participate  in  as  above,   the 
following : 

a.  Playground  baseball 

b.  Indoor  baseball 

c.  Soccer  football 

d.  Volleyball 

e.  Handball 

f.  Tennis 

g.  Boxing 
h.  Wrestling 


Curriculum  Construction  19 

i.  Fundamentals  of  running^ 
j.  Fundamentals  of  jumping^ 
k.  Fundamentals  of  throwing® 

1.  Fundamentals  of  climbing,  including  the  ability  to 
climb  a  twenty- foot  rope® 
m.  Swimming^" 
n.  Diving 
o.  Stunts^^ 

Backward  circle  on  horizontal  bar 
Big  drop  from  horizontal  bar 
Kip-up  on  horizontal  bar 
12B.  The  ability  to  participate  properly  in  one  of  the  above 
activities  includes  all  of  the  follow^ing  that  can  apply 
to  the  activity : 

a.  Skill  in  the  performance  of  the  activity 

b.  Knowledge  of  the  rules  of  the  activity 

c.  Knowledge  of  the  values  of  the  activity 

d.  Knowledge  of  the  conditions  for  which  the  activity  is 

best  suited 

e.  Knowledge  of  the  equipment  needed  for  the  activity 

f.  Ability  to  prepare,  direct  the  preparation  of,  or  select 

and  purchase  the  equipment  needed 

g.  Ability  to  teach  the  rules  to  others 

h.  Ability  to  help  others  develop  skill  in  the  activity 
i.  Knowledge  of  the  kind  of  clothing  that  is  most  sen- 
sible for  the  activity  under  different  conditions 
j.  The   disposition  to  wear  the   most   sensible   kind   of 

clothing  for  the  activity 
k.  The  ideal  that  physical-education  activities   are  pri- 
marily to  be  practiced  rather  than  watched  (The 
functioning  of  this  ideal  will  be  manifested  as  a 
tendency  to  participate  in  activities  rather  than  to 
watch  them) 
1.  The  disposition  to  do  one's  best  when  playing 
m.  The  "play  spirit" — i.e.,  the  spirit  of  playing  for  the 
game  itself,  and  of  getting  real  joy  from  playing 


'The  idea  here  is  not  that  the  adult  should  be  prepared  to  engage  in  formal  contest  in 
•running,  jumping,  throwing,  or  climbing,  but  that  he  should  have  the  fundamental  abilities 
that  can  be  used  in  improvised  or  other  informal  play  activities. 

^"Standards  of  attainment  are  specified  for  both  swimming  and  diving. 

"A  limited  number  of  stunts  are  specified. 


20  Bulletin  No.  39 

n.  The  spirit  of  constant  courtesy  to  companions,  oppo- 
nents and  officials 

o.  The  attributes,  beside  those  mentioned,  which  make 
one  a  true  sportsman^- 

II.  Spare  time  activities,  amusements,  recreations 

13.  Such  a  keen  desire  to  engage  in  wholesome  physical  activity 

that  one  will  turn  to  it  in  preference  to  less  desirable 
forms  of  activity 

14.  Ability  to  secure  the  pleasures  of  a  connoisseur  as  a  spectator 

of  the  wholesome  physical  activities  of  others 

15.  The  attitude  of  a  sportsman  when  acting  as  a  spectator  at  the 

physical  activities  of  others 

16.  x\bility  to  use  for  the  double  purpose  of  keeping  fit  and  enjoy- 

ing leisure  time,  a  variety  of  physical-education  activities 
16A.  The  same  as  12A 
16B.  The  same  as  12B 

III.  General  social  activities — meeting  and  mingling  with  others 

17.  Ability  to  participate  in  physical-education  games  and  other 

activities  as  a  means  of  becoming  acquainted  with  pleas- 
ant and  desirable  people 

18.  Ability  to  participate  in  physical-education  games  and  other 

activities  as  a  means  of  social  intercourse  (as  in  playing 
cards) 

19.  A  feeling  of  self-respect  as  a  result  of  a  knowledge  of  physical 

power  and  efficiency,  and  of  possessing  an  erect  and  dig- 
nified carriage  of  the  body 

20.  Skill  in  certain  elements  of  social  intercourse  as  a  result  of 

practice  in  social  games 

21.  Ability  and  disposition  to  be  courteous 

IV.  Emergency  activities  requiring  certain  special  strengths  and  skills 

22.  The  ability  to  save  one's  self  from  danger  of  drowning 

23.  The  ability  to  save  others  from  danger  of  drowning  (as  indi- 

cated b}'  the  ability  to  pass  the  Red  Cross  life-saving  test) 

24.  The  ability  to  run  with  fair  speed  and  endurance 

25.  The  ability  to  perform  the  simpler  marching  movements  in  co- 

operation with  others  under  leadership 

26.  The  ability  to  protect  one's  self,  or  others,  from  undesirable 

persons,  and  to  rid  one's  self  of  such  persons 


^-See:  Staley,  Seward  C.  "The  Program  of  Sportsmanship  Education,"  University  of 
Illinois  Bulletin,  VoL  21,  No.  49,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Circular  No.  28.  Urbana, 
Illinois:  University  of  Illinois,    1924,   27  p. 


Curriculum  Construction  21 

27.  The  ability  to  withstand  physical  hardship 

28.  The  ability  to  bear  heavy  burdens 

29.  The  ability  to  climb  with  power  and  sureness 

V.  Parental  activities — the  upbringing  of  children 

30.  The  ability  to  control  one's  sex  functions 

31.  The  ability  to  provide  one's  children  with  the  benefit  of  phy- 

sical education  in  their  growing  years 

The  question  of  character-building.  One  of  the  favorite  claims 
for  physical  education,  especially  athletics/^  has  been  that  it  "develops 
character,"  or  that  it  is  "character-building."  The  explanation  given 
has  usually  been  that  desirable  social  or  moral  qualities  are  exercised 
and  strengthened  by  physical  training.  Among  the  qualities  most  often 
mentioned  in  this  connection  are :  loyalty,  self-sacrifice,  initiative,  re- 
sourcefulness, leadership,  self-confidence,  alertness,  courage,  aggres- 
siveness, self-control,  obedience  to  authority,  and  spirit  of  fair  play. 
This  conception  is  in  terms  of  faculty  psychology-  and  as  such  has  been 
rather  effectively  discredited.  Nevertheless,  the  writers  believe  that 
the  facts  in  the  case  are  such  as  to  make  physical  education  an  im- 
portant agency  in  the  development  of  desirable  character. 

Monroe  explains  character  as  "essentially  a  composite  of  the  gen- 
eral patterns  of  conduct,  especially  ideals,  which  one  possesses."^* 
These  general  patterns  of  conduct  are  not  inborn,  but  neither  are  they 
learned  in  the  same  way  that  knowledge  or  skills  are  learned.  Rather 
they  are  acquired  from  one's  associates  through  the  processes  that 
Hayes^^  calls  "suggestion  and  sympathetic  radiation. "^^  It  seems  that 
physical  education  offers  unusually  favorable,  in  some  ways  unique, 
conditions  for  these  processes  to  take  place.  The  most  important  factor 
here  is  the  unusual  prestige  of  the  leader.  As  Hayes  says  in  another 
connection :  "The  play  leader  who  knows  more  about  the  ver}-  things 
that  interest  them  than  the  children  do,  who  excels  them  in  sports, 
who  gives  them  the  time  of  their  lives,  easily  gains  great  prestige  over 
them."^'^  There  are  also  other  factors  to  be  considered.  For  one  thing, 
active  social  play  abounds  in  obvious  moral  situations — in  which  de- 
cisions must  be  made  and  in  which  rights  and  duties  must  be  deter- 


^•'Sce,  for  example,  the  editorials  or  other  articles  of  John  L.  Griffith  in  almost  any 
issue  of  his  Athletic  Journal. 

"Monroe,  Walter  S.  Directing  Learning  in  the  High  School.  Garden  City,  New  York: 
Doubleday,  Page  and  Company,   1927,  p.  322. 

^"Hayes,  Edward  Cary.  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology.  New  York:  D.  Apple- 
ton  and  Company,  Chapter  XVII. 

^*As  Monroe  explains,  general  patterns  of  conduct  are  results  of  pupil  activity,  exactly 
as  other  controls  of  conduct  are.  The  difference  is  in  the  way  that  the  learning  activity  can 
be  caused  to  take  place,  or  can  be  guided.  Learning  activities  leading  to  specific  habits  or 
I  knowledge  can  be  commanded;  those  leading  to  general  patterns  of  conduct  cannot  be  com- 
I  manded. 

'"Hayes,  Edward  Cary.     Op.   cit.,  p.   674. 


22  Bulletin  No.  39 

mined.  Still  another  factor  is  the  fact  that  it  is  easier  to  generalize 
many  of  the  patterns  of  conduct  involved  in  play  activities  than  those 
of  other  school  activities.  Play  life  is  real  social  life,  as  contrasted 
with  the  artificial  and  special  character  of  most  school  life.  For  ex- 
ample, if  a  child  actually  develops  the  ideal  of  courtesy  to  opponents  in 
games  it  is  relatively  probable,  although  by  no  means  inevitable,  that 
he  will  apply  this  ideal  to  his  other  social  relations. 

It  seems,  then,  that  physical-education  teachers  have  a  unique 
opportunity  to  exert  favorable  influence  on  the  development  of  desir- 
able character  traits  in  their  pupils.  The  physical-education  teacher  of 
the  right  kind  is  more  than  a  teacher  in  the  usual  sense — he  is  an 
admired  leader  in  the  child's  own  world.  Consequently,  he  should 
make  character  development  a  significant  objective;  in  fact,  he  should 
consider  it  second  in  importance  only  to  the  development  of  organic 
power  as  the  foundation  of  health. ^^ 

Character  traits  are  not  outcomes  of  engaging  in  physical-educa- 
tion activities.  Nothing  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  should  be  con- 
strued to  mean  that  character  and  morals  are  developed  by  engaging 
in  physical-education  activities,  but  only  that  physical-education  ac- 
tivities furnish  a  very  favorable  opportunity  for  these  traits  to  be 
engendered  under  proper  leadership. ^^  The  process  by  which  ideals  and 
other  general  patterns  of  conduct  are  engendered  is  quite  obscure  and 
one  can  do  little  more  than  to  say  that,  under  proper  conditions,  they 
are  "produced  as  a  by-product  of  the  engendering  of  specific  habits 
and  knowledge. "^°  Consequently  the  curriculum-maker  cannot  assign 
definite  learning  exercises  for  the  engendering  of  ideals  and  attitudes, 
and  can  do  little  more  than  indicate  the  general  patterns  of  conduct 
that  should  be  objectives  for  the  teacher.-^ 

All  character  traits  cannot  be  specified.  Even  to  mention  all  of 
the  general  character  traits  and  moral  standards  that  might  wisely  be 
included  as  physical-education  objectives  is  quite  beyond  the  scope  of 


^^Organic  development  is  placed  first  because  here  physical  education  (in  school  or  out)  I 
is  absolutely  necessary  and  cannot  be  replaced,  while  in  character  training  its  functions  can) 
be  performed  by  other  activities. 

I'For  an  extended  discussion  of  general  patterns  of  conduct  and  an  explanation  of  what! 
is  known  about  their  acquisition  see:  Monroe,  Walter  S.  Directing  Learning  in  the  High\ 
School.     Garden  City,  New  York:  Doubleday,  Page  and  Company,    1927,   Chapter  X. 

^Hetherington  makes  this  explanation:  "All  activities  have  character-training  values] 
according  to  the  instinct  tendencies  they  exercise.  The  worth  of  any  activity  for  character! 
discipline  is  determined  primarily  by  the  nature  of  the  instincts  and  the  emotions  exercised.! 
Some  activities  are  better  for  the  development  of  certain  traits;  others  are  better  for  the! 
development  of  other  traits.  .  .  .  The  expressions  of  character  or  of  morals  may  be  goodl 
or  bad,  hence  the  development  tends  to  be  good  or  bad  according  to  the  leadership."  (This! 
sounds  suspiciously  like  faculty  psychology,  but,  taken  with  its  context  it  is  much  less  sol 
than  it  sounds.)  T 

Hetherington,  Clark  W.  School  Program  in  Physical  Education.  Yonkers-on-the-Hud-f 
son,  New  York:  World  Book  Company,   1923,  p.  27  and  29. 

-^On  the  development  of  ideals  through  athletics  J(?e:  Kirkpatrick,  William  H.  "Certait 
Moral  and  Social  Aspects  of  College  Athletics,"  American  Physical  Education  Review,  JuneJ 
1922. 


Curriculum  Construction  23 

any  work  no  more  pretentious  than  the  present  one,  if  indeed  it  can 
be  done  effectively  at  all.  Aside  from  the  intrinsic  difficulty  of  making 
such  an  analysis  is  the  fact  that  the  nature  of  the  objectives,  being 
determined  by  many  factors  such  as  the  present  character  of  the  pupils, 
qualifications  and  characteristics  of  the  teacher,  etc.  varies  greatly 
from  one  situation  to  another  and  can  hardly  be  specified  except  for 
the  individual  set  of  conditions.  Accordingly,  those  general  character 
traits,  or  general  patterns  of  conduct,  that  apply  to  activities  having 
no  relation  to  physical  education,  have  not  been  included  in  the  list  of 
functional  objectives.  The  writer  will  content  himself  by  repeating 
that  the  physical-education  teacher  has  a  unique  opportunity  to  en- 
gender in  pupils  ideals,  attitudes,  enthusiasms,  and  detestations,  and 
that  the  positive  endeavor  to  engender  such  of  these  character  traits 
as  under  the  condition  seem  possible  and  most  desirable  constitutes  for 
him  a  prime  duty. 

On  the  other  hand,  those  general  patterns  of  conduct  have  been 
included  whose  function  it  is  to  regulate  and  control  activities  in  which 
habits,  skills,  and  knowledge  are  also  included.  Whenever  one  takes 
to  himself  the  task  of  providing  others  with  habits,  skills,  or  knowl- 
edge, he  should  also  equip  them  with  the  ideals,  interests,  enthusiasms, 
and  hatreds  which  will  ensure  the  wise  and  effective  use  of  the  habits, 
skills,  and  knowledge. 

Relation  between  physical-education  activities  and  learning  exer- 
cises. The  curriculum  in  physical  education  consists  of  learning  exer- 
cises; that  is,  of  specific  things  which  pupils  are  requested  to  do.  For 
example,  in  connection  with  swimming,  a  pupil  may  observe  the  teacher 
as  he  gives  a  demonstration,  listen  to  an  explanation,  read  a  book  of 
instructions,  practice  a  certain  breathing  exercise,  practice  a  particular 
leg  stroke,  swim  twenty  yards  in  a  race  with  other  pupils,  and  so  on. 
The  learning  exercises  in  physical  education  are,  by  the  very  definition 
of  physical  education,  based  on,  or  centered  around,  or  made  necessary 
by,  certain  forms  of  play,  athletics,  gymnastics,  dancing,  or  other  kinds 
of  physical-education  activity.  The  values  of  physical  education  are 
to  be  obtained  from  the  physical-education  activities,  and  learning  exer- 
cises are  justified  only  as  they  contribute  to  the  realization  of  these 
values,  either  by  calling  for  practice  of  the  activities,  or  by  helping  to 
engender  controls  of  conduct  which  will  govern  future  practice  of  the 
[activities.  Accordingly,  the  next  step  in  the  formulation  of  a  physical- 
^ education  curriculum  must  be  the  determination  of  the  physical-educa- 
|tion  activities  upon  which  this  curriculum  is  to  be  based.  This  determi- 
! nation  will  be  arrived  at  through  an  examination  of  the  objectives  with 


24  Bulletin  No.  39 

a  view  to  selecting  the  kinds  of  activities  best  suited  to  their  achieve- 
ment. 

Development  of  organic  strength,  efficiency,  and  skill  requires  a 
large  amount  of  motor  activity.  As  has  already  been  explained,  the 
value  of  physical  education  for  proper  organic  development  is  based 
on  the  fact  that  increased  muscular  activity  causes  increased  organic 
activity.  The  primary  requirement  for  the  proper  developmental  efifect 
of  this  activity  is  that  it  be  vigorous  and  prolonged.  Consequently,  the 
activities  which  are  selected  w4th  this  first  group  of  objectives  in  view 
must  be  those  that  give  large  amounts  of  work  to  all  the  fundamental 
muscle  groups.  Arm  waving,  toe  touchings,  dumb-bell  swingings,  and 
the  like,  have  no  value  here.  Further,  the  amount  of  activity  needed 
for  this  objective  is  much  larger  than  it  is  possible  to  include  in  any 
ordinary  school  program,  and  it  follows  that  the  activities  used  in 
school  for  this  purpose  must  be  such  as  will  be  practiced  spontaneously 
by  the  children  out  of  school  hours. 

This  one  fact  should  be  sufficient  to  show  the  inadequacy  of  the 
traditional  program  of  marching,  drills,  and  calisthenics.  The  march- 
ing and  drill  program  is  not  vigorous ;  it  does  not  evoke  the  hearty  co- 
operation of  the  pupils;  it  is  not  practiced  in  a  healthy  state  of  mind; 
and  it  is  never  resorted  to  spontaneously  out  of  school.  The  activities 
which  meet  this  objective  must  not  only  be  valuable,  but  they  must 
also  be  ones  to  which  children  will  turn  when  they  have  spare  time. 

Foundational-knowledge  objectives  require  varied  experience.  The 
primary  requirement  of  activities  selected  for  achieving  the  objectives 
of  foundational  knowledge  is  that  they  furnish  a  large  amount  of 
varied  experience  in  handling  one's  own  body,  in  using  one's  senses, 
in  dealing  with  the  fixed  environment  and  with  large  objects,  and  in 
dealing  with  other  persons.-^ 

Activities  for  functional  controls  of  conduct  largely  implied  in 
objectives.  The  functional  controls  of  conduct  listed  as  objectives 
have  to  do  largely  with  particular  physical-education  activities.  Hence 
the  basic  activity  is  automatically  determined  by  the  objective  itself, 
since  obviously  the  basic  activity  in  learning  to  engage  in  a  game  or 
other  motor  activity  usually  is  the  game  or  activity  itself.  Therefore, 
a  mere  inspection  of  the  list  of  functional  objectives  will  suggest  a 
number  of  games  and  other  activities  that  must  be  included  in  the 
curriculum. 


^"While  other  and  higher  reaches  of  insight  into  human  nature  are  gained  through  the 
specialized  linguistic  and  social  activities,  for  the  majority  of  children  the  more  fundamental 
insights  are  gained  through  big-muscle  play."  Hetherington,  Clark  W.  School  Program  in 
Physical  Education.     Yonkers-on-the-Hudson,  New  York:  World  Book  Company,   1923,  p.   31. 


Curriculum  Construction  25 

Summary  of  criteria  for  the  selection  of  physical-education  ac- 
tivities. The  criteria  to  be  observed  in  selecting  a  physical-education 
curriculum  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 

I.  The  curriculum  must  include  all  of  the  activities  specifically 
mentioned  in  the  objectives;  namely: 

a.  All  of  the  activities  mentioned  in  objective  12A^^ 

b.  Calisthenics  to  the  extent  necessary  for  acquiring  the  abil- 

ity to  use  one  set  of  calisthenic,  or  setting-up,  exercises 

c.  Enough   throwing  of   the   medicine  ball   to   acquaint   the 

pupils  with  its  use 

d.  Marching  to  the  extent  necessary  to  engender  the  ability  to 

execute  the  simplest  marching  movements,  and  to  fur- 
nish a  foundation  for  acquiring  skill  in,  and  knowledge 
of,  good  posture 

e.  Life-saving  methods 

11.  A  large  per  cent  of  the  activities  must  provide  for  vigorous 
and  prolonged  use  of  all  the  large  fundamental  muscle 
groups ; 

III.  The  activities  must  provide  for  a  varied  experience  in  explor- 

ing and  testing  one's  own  powers,  in  using  one's  senses, 
in  dealing  with  the  physical  environment,  and  in  dealing 
with  other  people  as  part  of  one's  environment; 

IV.  The   activities    of    I    and    II    must,    and   the    others    should 

when  possible,  be  so  pleasant  and  their  practice  result  in 

such  satisfaction  as  to  lead  to  their  spontaneous  practice 

away  from  school ; 
V.  They  must   include   activities   abounding  in   intensely   social 

relations  and  in  situations  demanding  moral  decisions ; 
VI.  They  must  include  social  games  and  activities  that  provide  an 

opportunity  for  pleasant  meeting  and  mingling  with  other 

people. 
It  is  immediately  apparent  that  many  activities  satisfy  more  than 
one  of  the  above  requirements.  It  is  especially  noticeable  that  the  ac- 
tivities implied  by  objective  12A,  comprising  the  major  portion  of  those 
selected  for  adult  use,  seem  to  meet  most  of  the  important  criteria. 
Naturally,  if  other  things  are  equal,  the  activit}"  that  satisfies  several 
of  the  requirements  is  better  than  one  that  satisfies  but  one.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  ver}^  important  to  have  a  balanced  ration  of  learning 


^As  far  as  objective  12A  {see  p.  18)  is  concerned,  these  activities  need  to  be  included 
only  to  the  extent  necessary  for  acquiring  the  abilities  to  use  them  as  adults.  But  they  are 
also  of  great  value  in  meeting  other  objectives  and  hence  will  be  included  to  an  extent  not 
justified  by  this  objective  alone. 


26  BuLLETix  No.  39 

exercises.  Taking  into  account  the  importance  of  a  balanced  ration, 
and  the  importance  of  each  of  the  above  ten  requirements,  it  seems 
that  the  curriculum  should  be  based  on  the  following  types  of  physical- 
education  activity : 

1.  Stunts,  or  self-testing  activities.  These  activities  are  the 
most  useful  of  all  for  the  development  of  foundational  knowledge 
of  one's  own  powers  and  of  the  material  environment.  They  also 
provide  vigorous  activity,  and  are  extremely  enjoyable  to  boys  of 
all  grades  of  abilit}^  Other  advantages  of  stunts  are  the  facts  that 
they  require  no  apparatus  or  only  easih-  available  apparatus  (such 
as  tree  limbs,  fences,  etc.)  and  that  they  can  be  practiced  by  one 
person  alone  or  by  small  groups. 

2.  Dancing.  Athletic  dances  and  the  more  vigorous  folk 
dances  are  very  valuable  for  their  vigor  and  rhythmic  appeal.  Boys 
sometimes  object  to  dancing  on  account  of  the  name,  but  they  soon 
learn  to  be  extremely  fond  of  it. 

3.  Group  games  and  group  relays.  This  class  includes  ac- 
tivities that  are  social,  but  which  have  either  no  teams  at  all  or 
loosely  organized  and  temporary  teams.  Alan}^  of  the  activities 
shade  over  into  athletics ;  in  fact,  the  whole  group  might  be  con- 
sidered to  be  one  form  of  athletics.  The  games  or  races  can  be 
enjoyed  without  previous  practice  and  can  be  organized  without 
notice,  and  are  adaptable  for  groups  of  various  sizes. 

4.  Individual  athletics.  These  are  measurable  activities  that 
can  be  practiced  by  one  person  alone  or  in  competition  with  any 
number  of  others;  for  example,  running,  jumping,  throwing,  and 
climbing.  There  is  never  any  resistance  to  the  activity  of  one 
participant  by  others,  as  there  is  in  athletic  games.  Compare,  for 
example,  competition  in  the  hundred-yard  dash  or  the  running 
high  jump  with  that  in  tennis  or  baseball.'*  These  events  shade 
off  into  stunts. 

5.  Athletic  Games.  In  athletic  games  one  team  competes 
against  another,  and  the  activity  of  one  is  always  resisted  by  that 
of  the  other.  There  is  a  fairly  well-marked  distinction  between 
those  games  in  which  a  team  consists  of  one  or  tw^o  (e.  g.,  tennis, 
handball)  and  those  in  which  a  team  is  larger.  The  games  arej 
all  social  and  competitive  and  are  nearly  always  vigorous. 

6.  Combative  activities.  These  are  chiefly  boxing  and  wrest- 
ling, but  include  also  minor  activities  such  as  Indian  wrestling. 


^^This  distinction  classes  golf  with  individual  athletics,  rather  than  with  athletic  games. 


Curriculum  Construction  27 

7.  Water  activities.  This  class  is  really  not  coordinate  with 
the  others,  but  on  account  of  its  special  nature,  is  so  classified. 

8.  Marching.  A  small  amount  of  ability  in  marching  to 
command  is  sometimes  very  useful,  as  in  tire-drills.  Marching  also 
furnishes  a  basis  for  learning  correct  posture  and  is  useful  in  the 
physical-education  class  itself. 

9.  Calisthenics.  The  objectives  should  include  the  ability  to 
use  one  calisthenic  drill.  With  this  exception,  calisthenics  do  not 
contribute  to  the  objectives  anything  that  cannot  be  better  supplied 
by  other  activities.  Hence,  calisthenics  will  be  included,  but  only 
to  the  extent  necessary  for  achieving  the  objective  mentioned. 
Many  desirable  activities  excluded  because  impracticable.    Many 

types  of  activities  that  are  extremely  desirable  are  omitted  from  the 
above  list  because  they  are  not  practicable  in  the  ordinary  school.  For 
this  reason  ice  and  snow  sports  and  bowling  are  omitted,  as  are  boat- 
ing, equestrianism,  and  many  others. 

Curriculum  is  for  class  time  only.  The  curriculum  which  follows 
is  intended  to  supply  learning  exercises  for  the  class  period  only.  It  is 
assumed  that  the  pupils  will  have  the  opportunity,  either  at  the  school 
or  elsewhere,  to  practice  the  activities  which  they  have  learned  in  the 
class  period.  The  school  may  properly  cooperate  with  other  agencies 
in  organizing  and  directing  the  leisure-time  activities  of  pupils,  but  this 
function  of  the  school  is  not  treated  here. 

SEVENTH  GRADE" 
I.  Stunts,  or  self-testing  activities'^ 

A.  Forward  roll 

1.  Observe  a  demonstration  of  the  stunt  by  the  teacher; 

2.  Observe   demonstrations   by   volunteers    from   the    class, 
who  believe  that  they  can  perform  the  stunt ; 

3.  Listen  to  explanation  and  instruction  by  teacher  ; 

4.  Attempt  to  perform  the  stunt ; 

5.  Receive  criticisms  and  suggestions  from  the  teacher  and 
from  pupils  who  have  been  successful ; 

6.  Practice  further  until  stunt  is  learned ; 


^°0nly  the  curriculum  for  the  seventh  grade,  the  first  year  of  the  junior  high  school,  is 
reproduced  here.     Mr.  Hindman's  thesis  includes  also  the  curricula  for  the  other  years. 

-*It  is  not  considered  practicable  to  list  all  of  the  stunts  that  are  to  be  used.  One  reason 
is  that  the  stunts  and  their  nomenclature  are  not  standardized  and  it  is  consequently  im- 
possible to  describe  them  properly  without  illustrations.  The  present  curriculum  will  include 
the  learning  exercises  for  all  of  the  stunts  that  are  to  be  learned  permanently,  and  for 
samples  of  the  others.  For  complete  descriptions  and  illustrations  of  a  great  variety  of 
stunts,  the  reader  is  referred  to:  Pearl,  N.  H.,  and  Brown,  H.  E.  Health  by  Stunts.  New 
York:  The  Macmillan  Company,  1919.  216  p.  It  is  recommended  that  a  class  be  given  one 
fairly  complicated  stunt  (such  as  the  forward  roll  above)  each  month  and  from  one  to  three 
or  four  minor  stunts  (such  as  the  knee-dip  above)   each  week. 


28  Bulletin  No.  39 

7.  Review  stunt  after  it  is  expected  to  have  been  learned; 

8.  Take  a  test  on  ability  to  perform  the  stunt ; 

9.  Perform  the  stunt  frequently  as  a  part  of  class  work. 

B.  Elephant  walk  (for  two  boys) 

10.  Observe  demonstration  by  two  pupils  under  direction  of 
teacher ;-" 

11.  Go  through  motions  slowly  on  command  of  teacher; 

12.  Practice  the  stunt ; 

13.  Request  aid,  if  necessary,  from  teacher  or  from  success- 
ful pupils ; 

14.  Practice  stunt  until  proficiency  is  attained; 

15.  Change  places  with  partner  and  try  again; 

16.  Practice  informally  for  pleasure; 

17.  Review  stunt  occasionally  in  class ; 

18.  Take  a  test  on  ability  in  stunt. 

C.  Knee-Dip 

19.  Observe  demonstration  by  teacher  (or  try  stunt  at  direc- 
tion of  teacher,  without  demonstration)  ; 

20.  Practice  until  successful; 

21.  Try  again  after  an  interval  of  time.-^ 

II.  Dancing 

A.  Ace  of  Diamonds 

22.  Listen  to  the  music  and  note  the  rhythm ; 

23.  Observe  the  teacher  as  he  demonstrates  the  entire  dance ; 

24.  Observe  the  teacher  as  he  demonstrates  the  first  step ; 

25.  Without  music,  go  through  the  motions  of  the  first  step 
very  slowly  according  to  the  description  and  demonstra- 
tion of  the  teacher; 

26.  Try  the  first  step  with  the  music ; 

27.  Repeat  22-27  for  the  next  step ; 

28.  Combine  first  and  second  steps ; 

29.  Repeat  the  process  of  analysis  and  synthesis  until  entire 
dance  is  learned ; 

30.  Practice  the  dance  for  pleasure. 

B.  Seven  Jumps 

31.  Learning  exercises  similar  to  the  above. 


"This  stunt  can  be  done  at  the  first  trial  by  boys  of  average  ability. 

2*Tlie  first  two  stunts  to  be  mentioned  are  valuable  after  they  are  learned.  The  poinl 
to  the  knee-dip,  on  the  other  hand,  is  in  learning  to  do  it,  and  the  stunt  has  little  value  foj 
one  who  is  proficient  in  doing  it. 


Curriculum  Construction  29 

III.  Group  games  and  group  relays-^ 

A.  Dodgeball 

32.  Take  proper  position  on  instruction  from  teacher ; 

33.  Listen  to  an  explanation  of  the  game; 

34.  Observe  a  demonstration  of  important  features  of  the 
game ; 

35.  Play  the  game. 

B.  All-up  Indian  Club  Relay 

36.  Take  proper  position  according  to  instructions  of  teacher; 

37.  Observe  a  demonstration  by  teacher; 

38.  Engage  in  the  relay  as  a  contest. 

C.  Other  games  and  relays 

39.  Participate  in  Black  and  White  f'^ 

40.  Participate  in  Stake  Guard; 

41.  Participate  in  Poison  Snake  ; 

42.  Participate  in  Ball  Pass  Relay. 

IV.  Individual  athletics 

43.  Observe  a  model  of  correct  start  for  a  sprint; 

44.  Practice  correct  starting  for  a  sprint ; 

45.  Run  25  yards  in  competition; 

46.  Compete  in  a  relay  race,  running  25  yards  ;^^ 

47.  Practice  the  soccer  dribble  ; 

48.  Compete  against  others  in  the  soccer  dribble ; 

49.  Practice  the  volleyball  serve ; 

50.  Compete  in  the  volleyball  serve  ; 

51.  Practice  throwing  goals  with  a  basketball ; 

52.  Compete  in  basketball  goal  throwing,  from  various  dis- 
tances. 


-'As  with  stunts,  it  is  not  possible  to  select  in  advance  the  exact  games  and  relays  that 
are  best.  The  best  ones  and  the  number  to  be  used  will  be  determined  by  a  large  number  of 
influences,  such  as  nature  of  the  play  space,  number  of  pupils,  local  traditions,  play  experi- 
ence of  pupils.  Accordingly,  the  following  games  are  given  with  the  understanding  that  the 
list  is  to  be  altered,  expanded,  or  abbreviated,  as  conditions  seem  to  warrant. 

The  author  feels  that  most  teachers  attempt  to  use  too  many  different  games  and 
relays.  The  tendency  is  to  use  a  poor  game  because  it  is  a  new  one  rather  than  an  old  one 
that  is  good.  Let  it  be  said  again  that  there  is  little  virtue  in  learning  these  games;  they  are 
to  be  played.  The  games  listed  here  are  all  old  and  well-known,  in  most  cases  throughout 
the  world. 

'"It  is  to  be  understood  that  participation  in  a  game  or  relay  implies  such  learning 
exercises  as  the  ones  listed  for  Dodgeball  and  for  All-up  Indian  Club  Relay. 

'^This  is  the  comparatively  formal  relay  for  small  teams,  and  is  considered  an  athletic 
event.  The  relays  previously  listed  are  comparatively  informal,  are  not  usually  practiced  for 
proficiency,  and  are  adapted  for  large  and  variable-sized  teams.  They  are  therefore  con- 
sidered group,  or  mass  events. 


30  Bulletin  No.  39 

V.  Athletic  games^- 

A.  Speedball 

53.  Practice  the  dribble  ; 

54.  Practice  hand  passing  in  circle  formation  f^ 

55.  Practice  goal  kicking  from  various  positions ; 

56.  Practice  drop-kicking  from  various  positions ; 

57.  Listen  to  explanations  of  the  rules  by  the  teacher ; 

58.  Read  and  study  the  rules  ; 

59.  Watch  the  older  students  play ; 

60.  Play  in  a  short  game ; 

61.  Play  in  other  short  games,  occupying  different  positions 
on  the  team. 

B.  Basketball   ( Xo  games  played ;  learning  exercises  for  basket- 

ball included  under  individual  athletics) 

C.  Volleyball 

62.  Practice  serving; 

63.  Practice  batting  from  one  player  to  another  (on  the  same 
team)  ; 

64.  Practice  passing  and  "spiking"  f* 

65.  Listen  to  an  explanation  of  the  rules ; 

66.  Study  the  rule  book ; 

67.  Practice  passing  in  different  "formation"; 

68.  Play  short  games  with  the  added  rule  that  the  ball  must 
not  be  returned  over  the  net  before  the  third  stroke. 

D.  Playground  baseball 

69.  Practice  throwing  and  catching  in  groups  of  two  to  six 
boys ; 

70.  Practice  pitching; 


5-In  view  of  the  statement,  repeated  several  times  in  this  thesis,  that  the  value  from 
physical-education  activities  comes  from  engaging  in  them  and  not  in  learning  them,  it  may 
seem  that  the  learning  exercises,  especially  under  athletic  games,  include  altogether  too  little 
actual  participation  in  fam.iliar  activities,  and  too  much  learning  of  new  ones.  Two  answers 
are  offered  to  this  objection:  First,  the  thesis  has  assumed  throughout  that  the  activities  must 
be  practiced  outside  of  the  regular  class  hour  and  has  attempted  to  follow  the  criterion  that 
the  activities  used  must  be  of  such  a  nature  that  the  pupils  will  be  anxious  to  practice  them 
outside  of  class  hours.  Consequently,  when  a  fair  degree  of  skill  and  knowledge  is  required 
for  effective  participation,  it  is  here  considered  that  the  first  duty  of  the  school  is  to  see  that 
these  are  acquired.  It  is  the  firm  opinion  of  the  author  that  the  school  should  organize  the 
spare  time  of  the  pupils  for  participation  in  the  activities,  but  the  organization  of  the  spare 
time  is  not  considered  here.  Second,  with  the  exception  of  basketball  and  speedball,  the 
athletic  games  here  included  are  expected  to  be  practiced  by  the  pupils  when  they  become 
adults.  Hence  it  is  an  important  duty  of  the  school  to  engender  in  the  pupil  the  degree  of 
skill  and  knowledge  of  the  games  which  is  essential  to  ensure  their  continued  practice. 

^'According  to  the  language  of  soccer,  which  has  been  largely  borrowed  by  speedball,  a 
"pass"  is  made  with  the  foot;  hence  the  necessity  for  the  term  "hand  passing,"  which  is  not 
used  in  soccer. 

'■•Volleyball  should  be  played  by  seventh-grade  boys  with  a  net  about  a  foot  lower  than 
the  regulation  height.  As  the  boys  become  taller  and  more  skillful  the  net  should  be  raised 
gradually,  the  full  height  not  being  used  by  any  players  except  full-grown  and  experienced 
ones.  The  eight-foot  net  for  boys  is  another  example,  so  common  in  athletics,  of  the  stand- 
ards of  the  professional  or  expert  being  forced  upon  boys  and  "dubs." 


Curriculum  Construction  31 

71.  Practice  throwing  from  base  to  base; 

72.  Practice  catching  batted  flies ; 

73.  Practice  catching  batted  ground  balls  ; 

74.  Practice  bunting  slowly  thrown  balls  ; 

75.  Practice  easy  hitting  of  slowly  thrown  balls  f^ 

76.  Practice  hitting  and  placing  slowly  thrown  balls ; 

77.  Practice  hitting  balls  thrown  with  ordinary  pitching 
speed ; 

78.  Listen  to  an  explanation  and  demonstration  of  the  most 
important  rules ; 

79.  Demonstrate  knowledge  of  rules  by  setting  up  situations 
which  explain  them ; 

80.  Play  short  games,  rotating  from  one  position  to  another. 

VI.  Combative  activities 

A.  Minor  combative  activities  f^  practice  such  contests  as : 

81.  Cockfight 

82.  Pulling  Sticks 

83.  Back-to-Back  Tug 

84.  Hand  Wrestle 

VII.  Water  activities 

85.  Without  any  attempt  to  swim,  practice  a  number  of  exer- 
cises for  overcoming  the  fear  and  sense  of  strangeness  in 
the  water,  such  as  : 

Duck  with  nose  held  and  eyes  shut ; 

Duck  and  count  ten ; 

Duck  and  open  eyes ; 

Duck,  open  eyes,  and  count  fingers  ; 

Lie  flat  on  water ; 

Go  to  bottom  in  shallow  water ; 

86.  Following  teacher,  go  through  arm  motions  for  crawl 
stroke,  and  then  practice; 

87.  Holding  edge  of  pool  with  hands,  go  through  leg  stroke, 
and  then  practice ; 


^^By  far  the  most  important  element  of  baseball,  at  least  as  far  as  this  thesis  is  con- 
cerned, is  hitting.  The  chief  reason  why  most  players  are  such  very  poor  hitters  is  that  they 
"try  to  kill  the  ball,"  swinging  wildly  with  the  eyes  shut  or  looking  anywhere  but  at  the 
ball.  The  exercises  named  in  connection  with  hitting  are  designed  to  get  the  player  into  the 
habit  of  looking  at  the  ball,  and  meeting  it  squarely,  rather  than  trying  to  "knock  the  cover 
off." 

^^All  of  the  minor  combative  activities  mentioned  in  this  thesis  are  described  in  one  or 
both  of  the  following  books: 

Johnson,  George  Ellsworth.  Education  by  Plavs  and  Games.  Boston:  Ginn  and  Com- 
pany,  1907.    234  p. 

Staley,  Seward  Charles.  Games,  Contests,  and  Relays.  New  York:  A.  S.  Barnes  and 
Company,   1924.    354  p. 


32  Bl-lletix  Xo.  39 

S8.  Following  teacher,  practice  breathing  while  standing  and 
alternately  ducking  and  withdrawing  the  head : 

89.  Without  breathing  and  without  moving  legs,  swim  several 
strokes  with  the  arms  ; 

90.  Repeat,  adding  the  leg  motion ; 

91.  Repeat,  adding  the  breathing: 

92.  Receive  corrections  and  continue  practice ; 

93.  Repeatedly  observe  model  of  crawl  stroke  ; 

94.  Repeatedly  study  written  directions  for  crawl  stroke  ; 

95.  Continue   practice    of    crawl    stroke   until    able   to    swim 
twenty  yards ; 

96.  Observe  a  model  of  a  plain  dive  from  edge  of  pool ; 

97.  Attempt  to  make  a  plain  dive : 

98.  Observe  model,  receive  corrections,  and  try  again.^'' 

VIII.  Marchings^ 

99.  Observe  a  model  of  correct  standing  posture; 

100.  Study   a   chart   describing  correct  standing  posture   and 
common  faults  :^® 

101.  Assume,  with  help  if  necessary,   a  correct  standing  po- 
sition ; 

102.  Practice  assuming  the  correct  position  and  slumping  to 
ordinary  one  i  assuming  that  the  usual  position  is  fault}-)  ; 

103.  Discuss  in  class  the  values  of  good  posture  and  its  nature ; 

104.  Practice  standing,  walking,  and  sitting  in  good  posture 
until  it  becomes  habitual ; 

105.  Practice  following  the  command  '"forward  march"; 

106.  Practice  following  the  command  '"class  halt"  : 

107.  Practice  following  informally  the  commands  ""column  left 
march''  and  '"column  right  march"  ; 

108.  Practice  following  the  commands  '"right  face,  left  face, 
about  face." 


'"Ability  to  make  a  dive  is  not  to  be  insisted  on  for  the  seventh  grade,  but  the  dive 
should  be  introduced  so  that  students  can  practice  it  during  the  summer  before  taking  it  uj 
in  class  in  the  eighth  grade. 

'^It  is  not  expected  that  any  definite  class  time  will  be  allotted  to  marching,  but  tha^ 
the  marching  will  be  used  in  moving  the  pupils  about  for  the  other  work,  and  thus  learned 
it  might  be  said,  incidentally. 

'*A  set  of  six  such  charts,  each  24  by  34  inches,  can  be  purchased  for  fifty  cents  froi 
the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government  Printing  OflSce,  Washington,  D.   C. 


CHAPTER  III 

CONSTRUCTING  A  CURRICULUM  IN  HORTICULTURE 
FOR  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Concept  of  objectives.  In  formulating  the  objectives  of  horticul- 
ture one  should  distinguish  between  ultimate  and  immediate  objectives. 
Ultimate  objectives  are  those  that  look  to  the  future.  They  are  the 
standards,  the  goals  toward  which  educational  endeavor  is  directed. 
They  represent  the  conduct  or  the  desired  behavior  of  adults  or  of  the 
pupil  after  he  leaves  school  or  when  he  is  out  of  school.  Ultimate 
objectives  are  also  known  as  conduct  objectives.  Educational  writers 
have  proposed  numerous  statements  of  headings  under  which  ultimate 
or  conduct  objectives  may  be  grouped.  The  list  proposed  by  the  Com- 
mission on  the  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education  of  the  National 
Education  Association/  known  as  the  "Cardinal  Principles  of  Second- 
ary Education" ;  the  list  of  the  North  Central  Association  of  Colleges 
and  Secondary  Schools;^  and  the  list  of  objectives  proposed  by  Bobbitt^ 
are  well-known  statements  of  captions  for  classifying  conduct  objec- 
tives. 

Ultimate,  or  conduct,  objectives  are  sometimes  listed  as  rather 
vague  terms,  using  such  generalizations  as  citizenship,  health,  and 
ethical  character,  as  defined  in  the  statement  of  the  "Cardinal  Prin- 
ciples of  Secondary  Education."  They  may  also  be  defined  by  specify- 
ing the  duties  to  be  performed  or  the  occasions  for  the  functioning  of 
the  controls  of  conduct.  It  does  not  make  a  great  deal  of  difference 
how  these  ultimate  objectives  are  stated.  Personally  the  writer  prefers 
the  second  type  of  statement — in  terms  of  duties  or  occasions  for  the 
use  of  abilities. 

Immediate,  or  control,  objectives  are  the  abilities  or  controls  of 
conduct  which  pupils  are  to  acquire.  These  act  as  determinants  of 
conduct  and  are  to  be  engendered  by  the  school  in  order  that  the  con- 
duct designated  by  the  ultimate  or  conduct  objectives  mav  be  realized. 
They  are  controls  leading  to  the  attainment  of  the  conduct  objectives. 
They  are  the  direct  outcomes  or  products  of  learning  activity  on  the 
part  of  the  pupil.  They  are  a  means  towards  an  end.  The  ultimate 
objectives  are  the  end.     An  illustration  from  the  field  of  horticulture 


^Commission  on  the  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education.  "Report  on  Cardinal 
Principles  of  Secondary  Education,"  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  1918,  No. 
35.    Washington:  Government  Printing  Office,   1918. 

^"Report  on  Standards  for  Reorganization  of  Secondary  School  Curricula,  1924."  North 
Central  Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools,  March  20,  21,  22,  1924,  p.  6.  See 
p.   12  of  this  bulletin. 

^Bobbitt,  Franklin.  How  to  Make  a  Curriculum.  Boston:  Houghton  Mifflin  Company, 
1924,  p.  8-9.    See  p.   1 1  of  this  bulletin. 

33 


34  Bulletin  No.  39 

will  make  this  distinction  clear.  We  may  say  that  one  ultimate  aim 
of  horticulture  is  the  efficient  production  of  orchard  products  by  the 
pupil  after  he  has  left  school  or  even  while  he  is  in  school.  To  attain 
this  end  many  controls  of  conduct  must  be  acquired  by  the  pupil;  such 
as :  the  ability  to  control  insects  and  fungus  diseases  by  spraying,  the 
ability  to  prune  fruit  trees  in  the  best  known  manner,  the  ability  to 
fertilize  the  trees,  the  ability  to  cultivate  the  trees,  the  desire  to  have 
an  efficient  orchard,  and  so  forth.  It  is  the  aim  of  the  work  in  horti- 
culture to  engender  these  abilities  or  controls  of  conduct  in  the  par- 
ticular divisions  of  the  field  that  are  chosen  by  the  individual  school. 

The  relationship  between  ultimate  and  immediate  objectives  is 
this :  ultimate  or  conduct  objectives  are  the  goals,  or  desired  future 
behavior,  while  the  immediate  or  control  objectives  are  the  means  of 
reaching  these  goals. 

Technique  of  determining  conduct  objectives.  The  best  con- 
ceivable forms  of  adult  horticultural  activity,  as  determined  by  analysis 
and  appraisal  of  the  activities  in  which  farmers  engage,  are  to  be  taken 
as  the  objectives  of  horticulture.'^  The  conduct  objectives  can  be  de- 
termined only  by  a  thorough  study  of  the  horticultural  activities  in 
which  farmers  engage.  Charters^  gives  four  methods  of  making  ac- 
tivity or  job-analyses;  namely,  by  introspection,  interviewing,  working 
on  the  job,  and  by  the  questionnaire.  Introspection  is  the  method  used 
by  those  already  familiar  with  the  job  in  which  the  duties  are  to  be 
analyzed.  In  the  second  method,  the  interviewer  asks  the  one  perform- 
ing the  job  to  list  his  activities.  In  the  third  method,  the  one  making 
the  analysis  performs  the  job  by  carrying  through  the  activities  him- 
self. The  written  questionnaire  is  sometimes  used  as  a  method  of 
analysis,  but  this  method  is  not  very  satisfactory. 

Bobbitt  summarizes  the  method  of  activity-analysis  he  used  in  the 
determination  of  objectives  after  the  major  fields  of  human  action 
have  been  defined.  He  takes  what  he  calls  the  major  fields  and  analyzes 
them  into  their  more  specific  activities.  "In  this  analysis,  one  will  first 
divide  his  field  into  a  few  rather  larger  units,  and  then  break  them  up 
into  smaller  units  .  This  process  of  division  will  continue  until  he  has 
found  the  quite  specific  activities  that  are  to  be  performed."®  These 
are  the  immediate  objectives  of  the  field. 


^This  method  of  determining  objectives  is  the  same  as  that  given  in  the  following: 
"The  Foundations  of  Curriculum-making."  The  Twenty-Sixth  Yearbook  of  the  Na- 
tional Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  II.  Bloomington,  Illinois:  Public  School 
Publishing  Company,   1926,  p.   12-13. 

^Charters,  W.  W.  Ciirricuhim  Construction.  New  York:  The  Macmillan  Company, 
1925,  p.   38-39. 

"Bobbitt,  op  cit.,  p.  9. 


Curriculum  Construction  35 

The  determination  of  the  activities  by  job  or  activity-analysis  tells 
us  what  things  people  do.  It  does  not  automatically  tell  us  what  are 
to  be  the  objectives  of  horticulture,  however.  For  example,  a  survey 
of  practices  in  connection  with  the  care  of  the  home  orchard  in  a  given 
community  might  show  that  the  majority  of  farmers  having  fruit  trees 
do  not  spray  or  prune  their  trees  according  to  the  methods  recom- 
mended by  their  own  state  experiment  station.  It  is  obvious  that  the 
abilities  to  prune  and  to  spray  trees  should  not  be  left  out  of  a  state- 
ment of  objectives.  The  curriculum-maker  must  put  such  abilities  into 
the  list.  Or,  if  in  considering  another  phase  of  insect  control,  the  cur- 
riculum-maker finds  that  farmers  are  laboriously  picking  or  knocking 
off  the  Colorado  potato  beetles  from  their  potato  vines,  he  should  not 
neglect  to  include  the  ability  to  spray  the  vines  with  the  proper  in- 
secticide to  control  the  pests  in  question,  rather  than  to  set  up  the 
common  practice  as  a  desirable  one.  Evaluation  or  appraisal  of  the 
activities  is  necessary.  Some  of  the  activities  are  good  and  should  be 
perpetuated.  These  selected  activities  should  be  made  objectives  of 
horticulture.  Other  activities  are  not  good  and  should  be  eliminated. 
An  analysis  of  horticultural  activities  will  determine  only  what  are  the 
common  practices.  To  determine  those  which  are  good  and  those  which 
are  bad  is  equally  important. 

Provision  for  differences  between  individuals.  There  should  he 
differ ent  expectations  zvith  respect  to  the  accomplishment  of  pupils  who 
learn  rapidly  and  those  ivho  learn  slowly.  All  pupils  cannot  reach  the 
same  goal.  The  eft'ort  should  be  made  to  engender  in  the  pupil  those 
habits,  ideals,  attitudes,  interests,  and  other  general  patterns  of  conduct 
and  adaptive  controls  of  conduct  that  will  enable  him  to  tg^ke  the  place 
he  desires  in  horticultural  activities  out  of  school.  Not  all,  probably, 
desire  to  reach  the  same  goal.  The  pupil  should  be  encouraged  to  do 
the  best  that  he  can.  Superior  pupils  will  cover  more  ground  than  will 
those  who  learn  less  rapidly.  They  should  be  permitted  to  do  so,  for 
it  is  through  these  superior  pupils  that  our  future  advancement  will 
come.  There  should  be  certain  minimum  essentials  of  the  materials  of 
horticulture  which  all  pupils  must  cover.  The  better  pupils  should  be 
required  to  do  additional  work.  For  instance,  in  setting  up  the  abilities 
or  immediate  objectives  of  horticulture,  one  should  include  those  that 
have  been  determined  to  be  most  important,  which  all  pupils  should  be 
required  to  master,  and  others  which  the  teacher  may  demand  of  the 
better  pupil  in  addition  to  the  minimum  essentials.  The  ideal  scheme 
would  be  to  set  up  immediate  objectives  for  each  pupil,  but  this  is  not 
[possible.    This  would  be  individual  instruction,  or  rather  curriculum- 


36  Bulletin  Xo.  39 

making  for  each  individual  pupil,  and  as  such  is  not  considered  in  this 
study. 

Provision  for  differences  between  communities.  There  should  he 
different  objectives  in  the  currlcnhim  in  horticulture  in  different  com- 
munities. There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  horticultural  activities  of 
communities.  In  portions  of  western  and  southern  Illinois  there  are 
extensive  commercial  orchards.  In  the  northern  part  of  Illinois  there 
are  extensive  areas  devoted  to  vegetable  gardening.  In  other  portions 
of  the  state  the  only  horticultural  activities  engaged  in  are  those  of  the 
home  vegetable  garden  and  the  home  orchard.  The  curriculum  should 
be  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  community  in  which  the  school  is 
located.  But  this  should  not  be  carried  too  far.  There  are  certain 
abilities  and  skills  which  are  common  to  all  those  engaging  in  horticul- 
tural activity  of  any  kind.  These  should  not  be  slighted.  For  instance, 
such  activities  as  the  care  of  the  home  vegetable  garden,  of  the  home 
orchard,  and  the  growing  of  potatoes  for  home  use,  at  least,  are  com- 
mon to  all  communities.  They  should  not  be  left  out  in  a  community 
where  some  special  type  of  horticultural  activity,  such  as  commercial 
apple  growing,  is  dominant. 

Allowance  for  out-of-school  learning.  Allozvance  shoidd  be  made 
for  education  received  through  other  agencies  than  the  school  such  as 
the  home,  the  community,  and  the  extension  service  of  the  state  agri- 
cidtural  college.  This  principle  recognizes  the  fact  that  some  boys 
taking  the  high-school  work  in  horticulture  may  have  had  extensive 
experience  at  home  in  some  of  the  work  covered  by  the  high-school 
curriculum  in  horticulture.  For  instance,  in  many  counties  there  are 
boys'  and  girls'  agriculture  clubs  which  give  instruction  in  certain 
phases  of  agriculture ;  such  as :  the  production  of  corn,  potatoes,  straw- 
berries, apples,  and  so  forth ;  the  feeding  and  care  of  livestock,  such  as 
swine,  sheep,  poultry,  dairy  cattle,  and  beef  cattle.  If  the  pupil  has 
official  record  of  his  work  approved  by  his  club  leader,  it  would  be 
unwise  to  insist  that  he  go  through  with  the  same  kind  of  work  again. 
For  him,  the  immediate  objectives  could  be  adjusted.  He  should  be 
given  other  work  to  do. 

The  school's  duty  in  engendering  ideals,  attitudes,  and  so  forth. 
The  curriciduni  in  horticidture  should  engender  ideals,  attitudes,  appre- 
ciations, tastes,  and  other  general  patterns  of  conduct,  as  zvell  as  skills 
and  knowledge.  The  terms  "ideals,"  "attitudes,"  "appreciations," 
"tastes,"  and  so  forth  are  called  general  patterns  of  conduct.  They  are 
plans,  outlines,  or  patterns.  These  general  patterns  are  more  perma- 
nent, more  lasting,  than  the  controls  included  under  the  term  know!- 


Curriculum  Construction  Zl 

edge.  Ideals,  for  instance,  are  spoken  of  as  "master-ideas."'  In  addi- 
tion to  the  intellectual  element  there  is  an  emotional  element  which 
adds  power  in  controlling  conduct.  Some  ideals  commonly  known  are 
those  of  honesty,  loyalty,  patriotism,  neatness,  accuracy,  and  so  on. 
The  term  "attitudes"  is  applied  to  another  group  of  patterns  of  con- 
duct. They  are  less  tangible  than  ideals,  but  are  also  very  important  in 
determining  conduct.  Some  common  terms  which  designate  certain 
attitudes  are  "prejudiced,"  "radical,"  "open-minded,"  "conservative," 
"scholarly,"  and  so  on.  Interests,  tastes,  and  desires  are  also  patterns 
of  conduct.  We  speak  of  an  interest  in  sports,  a  taste  for  good  liter- 
ature, good  taste  in  selecting  one's  clothing  or  in  furnishing  one's 
home,  a  desire  to  produce  a  crop  of  the  finest  apples  or  to  have  a 
vegetable  garden  which  will  supply  the  family  with  the  vegetables 
needed,  and  so  forth.  All  of  these  patterns  are  powerful  determinants 
of  conduct  or  behavior. 

How  are  these  general  patterns  of  conduct  to  be  engendered?  The 
ideals,  attitudes,  interests,  and  tastes  of  the  teacher  are  very  important 
in  engendering  these  controls  of  conduct.  The  pupil  can  be  interested 
in  horticulture  and  may  develop  a  desire  to  partake  of  an  activity  by 
being  shown  how  others  have  succeeded,  and  by  having  the  proper 
examples  held  up  before  him  at  every  opportunity.  The  teacher  should 
emphasize  accuracy  and  neatness  in  the  performance  of  a  job  by  re- 
fusing to  accept  work  lacking  in  these  qualities.  The  teacher  should 
have  these  general  patterns  of  conduct  in  mind  and  should  himself 
feel  that  the  desired  outcomes  are  worthy.  His  faith  and  belief  will 
be  expressed  in  his  acts,  in  the  tone  of  his  voice,  in  the  expression  on 
his  face.  "As  he  thinketh  in  his  heart,  so  is  he."  The  curriculum- 
maker  can  do  little  more  than  indicate  the  general  patterns  of  conduct 
which  should  be  considered  a  desirable  part  of  the  pupil's  learning. 

The  other  types  of  controls  of  conduct  are  well  known.     Specific 

\,  habits  are  automatic  or  largely  mechanical  controls  of  conduct  which 

i   function  in  familiar  situations.    They  are  known  as  fixed  controls  of 

;  conduct.    They  are  stored-up  controls  on  hand  to  be  used  as  needed. 

[  Names,  dates,  events,  or  other  facts  which  have  been  memorized  belong 

I  to  this  group.    In  addition,  there  are  many  habits  which  provide  auto- 

i'  matic  motor  responses.    Examples  of  these  are  found  in  typewriting, 

Ii  swimming,  sewing,  playing  the  piano,  and  so  on.    In  the  field  of  horti- 

i  culture,  the  farmer  or  fruit-grower  is  spoken  of  as  being  an  expert 

pruner,  or  skilled  in  spraying,  or  in  thinning  apples  on  the  trees.   This 

means  that  he  has  performed  these  dilTerent  operations  so  many  times 

'Bagley,  ^^^  C,  and  Keith,  John  A.  H.  An  Introduction  to  Teaching.  New  York:  The 
Macmillan  Company,    1924,  p.   241. 


I 


38  Bulletin  No.  39 

that  their  performance  has  become  habitual.  Specific  habits  provide 
ready-made  responses  to  famihar  situations. 

The  third  type  of  control  of  conduct  is  that  known  as  knowledge. 
Under  this  term  we  group  those  controls  that  function  in  overcoming 
difficulties  presented  by  new  situations.  They  are  commonly  referred 
to  as  ideas,  concepts,  meanings,  principles,  and  laws.  The  distinction 
between  specific  habits  and  knowledge  is  mainly  on  the  basis  of  the 
type  of  situation  for  which  a  response  is  provided.  If  the  situation  is 
familiar  and  one  possesses  a  ready-made  response,  the  control  of  con- 
duct is  called  a  specific  habit.  If  the  situation  is  new;  that  is,  if  it 
presents  a  problem  to  be  solved,  knowledge  is  the  term  given  to  the 
control  of  conduct  that  functions.  The  controls  belonging  to  the  group 
classed  as  knowledge  are  known  as  adaptive  controls  of  conduct.  It 
is  obvious  that  there  cannot  be  enough  fixed  controls  of  conduct  (spe- 
cific habits)  to  take  care  of  the  great  number  of  situations  that  are 
constantly  arising  in  our  present-day  life.  Even  if  ready-made  re- 
sponses could  be  set  up,  there  would  be  no  way  of  knowing  what  the 
future  has  in  store  for  the  pupil. 

Bobbitt's  analysis  unsatisfactory  as  a  basis  for  constructing  a 
curriculum  in  horticulture.®  There  is  no  doubt  in  the  writer's  mind 
that  horticulture  may  contribute  to  groups  of  activities  or  forms  of 
conduct  named  by  Bobbitt  other  than  the  vocational  activities — such  as 
health  activities ;  spare-time  activities,  amusements,  and  recreations ; 
keeping  one's  self  physically  fit ;  unspecialized  or  non-vocational  activi- 
ties; and  so  forth.  But  it  is  probable  that  other  subjects  of  the  high- 
school  curriculum  provide  more  efficiently  for  the  above  objectives 
than  does  horticulture.  A  subject  such  as  physical  education,  for  ex- 
ample, which  has  for  its  primary  goal  the  activities  leading  to  better 
health,  will,  no  doubt,  function  more  effectively  towards  establishing 
the  health  objectives  than  can  the  study  of  horticulture  whose  primary 
object  is  to  equip  the  individual  with  such  controls  of  conduct  that  he 
may  perform  the  various  essential  horticultural  activities.  Hence  it  has 
seemed  wise  to  base  the  construction  of  the  curriculum  in  horticulture 
upon  a  different  analysis  of  out-of-school  life,  restricting  it  to  the  field 
of  horticulture. 

Methods  used  in  determining  conduct  objectives  in  this  thesis.  A 
study  of  the  horticultural  activities  of  farmers  of  the  corn-belt  section 
of  Illinois  was  made  b}^  the  writer^  in  the  manner  described  below. 
During  the  past  year,  while  the  writer  was  a  graduate  student  at  the 


^See    p.    11     for    Bobbitt's    analysis.     Compare    this    statement    with    the    one    on    p.     I' 
relative  to  constructing  a  curriculum   in  physical   education. 

®The  writer  is  Mr.   Lundin,   from  whose  thesis  the  material   for  this  chapter  was  taken.l 


Curriculum  Construction  39 

University  of  Illinois,  he  had  the  opportunit}"  to  interview  a  number  of 
teachers  of  vocational  agriculture  of  the  State.  From  them  he  was  able 
to  ascertain  some  of  the  things  which  should  be  included  in  the  high- 
school  courses  in  vocational  agriculture.  At  the  same  time,  he  ob- 
tained the  opinions  of  members  of  the  department  of  horticulture  of 
the  University  of  Illinois  on  this  subject.  These  men  have  the  oppor- 
tunity of  studying  horticultural  conditions  in  the  state  in  their  work 
among  the  farmers.  Especially  is  this  true  of  the  extension  horticul- 
turists of  the  department  of  horticulture  whose  work  takes  them  regu- 
larly into  all  parts  of  the  State.  The  opinions  and  observations  of  such 
men  appeared  to  the  writer  to  be  very  much  worthwhile  and  reliable. 
During  the  past  year,  the  writer,  as  an  instructor  in  the  University 
of  Illinois,  has  come  into  intimate  contact  with  a  group  of  young  men 
in  the  freshman  courses  in  horticulture.  Interviews  with  these  young 
men  have  given  him  many  valuable  points  of  information  in  regard  to 
the  horticultural  needs  of  their  own  home  farms. 

Before  attending  the  University  of  Illinois  as  a  graduate  student, 
the  writer  was  for  six  years  connected  with  the  agricultural  extension 
service  of  Purdue  University,  as  county  agricultural  agent,  in  two 
counties  in  portions  of  Indiana  very  similar  agriculturally  to  the  Corn- 
Belt  of  Illinois.  This  work  brought  him  into  close  touch  with  the 
conditions  and  needs  of  farmers  of  the  counties  in  which  he  was 
located. 

The  conduct  objectives  in  horticulture.    As  a  result  of  the  study 
of  horticultural  activities  of  the  Corn-Belt  of  Illinois  and  of  similar 
portions  of  Indiana,  made  in  the  manner  given  above,  it  is  the  writer's 
belief  that  the  following  general  objective  is  the  one  towards  which 
the  high-school  course  in  horticulture  should  strive :   the  economical 
i    production  of  fruits  and  vegetables,  primarily  for  home  use.    To  make 
I    this  very  general  objective  more  specific  and  more  easily  understood, 
i    the  following  seven  conduct  objectives,  or  activities,  are  given: 
j  A.  Planning  the  w^ork  (This  includes  such  factors  as:  deciding  to 

I  have  a  garden  or  orchard ;  selecting  the  location  and  site ; 

1  selecting  and  purchasing  seeds,  trees,  and  plants ;  making 

plans  for  the  garden  and  orchard) 
B.  Starting  the  plants  (This  includes:  testing  and  inspecting  seeds 
and  plants,  caring  for  seeds  and  plants  before  planting, 
preparing  the  ground  for  planting,  setting  out  trees  and 
plants  in  the  orchard  and  small  fruit  garden,  planting 
vegetable  seeds  in  the  open  and  under  glass,  and  con- 
structing and  operating  the  hotbed  and  coldframe) 


40  Bulletin-  Xo.  39 

C.  Growing   the   plants    ( This   includes :   transplanting  vegetable 

plants,  maintaining  and  supplying  plant  food  and  organic 
matter,  cultivating  the  orchard  and  garden,  growing  cover 
crops  and  intercrops  and  preventing  washing  and  erosion 
of  the  soil,   forcing  vegetables,  and  intensive  cropping) 

D.  Pruning  and  thinning 

E.  Preventing  damage  by  insects,  diseases,  and  other  plant  pests 

F.  Harvesting  and  storing  the  crops 

G.  ^Marketing  fruits  and  vegetables 

Each  of  the  conduct  objectives,  or  activities,  is  to  be  considered  in 
connection  with  the  crops  of  the  following : 

1.  The  home  vegetable  garden  (including  such  crops  as:  toma- 

toes, sweet  corn,  sweet  potatoes,  Irish  potatoes,  onions, 
cabbage,  peppers,  lettuce,  turnips,  beans,  melons,  and  so 
forth) 

2.  The  home  orchard  (including  such  crops  as:  apples,  peaches, 

pears,  cherries,  plums,  and  so  forth) 

3.  The  small  fruit  garden  (including  such  crops  as:  blackberries, 

strawberries,  grapes,   raspberries,  currants,  gooseberries, 

and  so  forth) 
In  other  words,  the  following  simple  table  will  show  how  the  seven 
above-named  activities  will  apply  to  the  crops  of  the  home  vegetable 
garden,  the  home  orchard,  and  the  small  fruit  garden : 

A.  Planning  the  work 

1.  The  home  vegetable  garden 

2.  The  home  orchard 

3.  The  small  fruit  garden 

B.  Starting  the  plants 

1.  The  home  vegetable  garden 

2.  The  home  orchard 

3.  The  small  fruit  garden 

C.  Growing  the  plants 

1.  The  home  vegetable  garden 

2.  The  home  orchard 

3.  The  small  fruit  garden 

D.  Pruning  and  thinning 

1.  The  home  vegetable  garden 

2.  The  home  orchard 

3.  The  small  fruit  garden 


Curriculum  Construction  41 

E.  Preventing  damage  by  insects,  diseases,  etc. 

1.  The  home  vegetable  garden 

2.  The  home  orchard 

3.  The  small  fruit  garden 

F.  Harvesting  and  storing  the  crops 

1.  The  home  vegetable  garden 

2.  The  home  orchard 

3.  The  small  fruit  garden 

G.  Marketing  fruits  and  vegetables 

1.  The  home  vegetable  garden 

2.  The  home  orchard 

3.  The  small  fruit  garden 

The  above-named  seven  activities  designate  the  types  of  conduct 
or  behavior  which  the  control  objectives  should  enable  the  individual 
to  perform. 

Methods  of  determining  controls  of  conduct.  The  methods  used 
by  the  writer  in  determining  the  controls  of  conduct  to  be  engendered 
are  those  of  job  or  activity-analysis  by  introspection  and  by  interview- 
ing.^°  The  seven  activities  or  conduct  objectives  were  divided  into 
smaller  sub-units,  and  under  each  of  these  the  abilities  needed  as  con- 
trols of  conduct  were  listed.  The  results  of  this  procedure  are  illus- 
trated by  the  conduct  objectives  placed  under  the  first  activity: 

PLANNING  THE  WORK 
A.  Deciding  to  have  a  garden  or  orchard 

1.  Knowledge  of  the  value  of  fruits  and  vegetables  for  food,  such 
as  their  importance  in  supplying  necessary  proteins,  fats,  minerals,  vita- 
mins, and  so  forth  (Exercises  1,  2V^ 

2.  Knowledge  of  the  economic  importance  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables, such  as  their  value  in  the  United  States,  Illinois,  and  the  local 
community  (Exercise  3) 

3.  Appreciation  of  the  work  of  such  agencies  as  agricultural  col- 
leges, experiment  stations,  and  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, in  improving  the  varieties  and  methods  of  producing  fruits 
and  vegetables  (Exercises  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9) 

4.  Desire  to  have  an  efficient  garden  or  orchard  which  includes 
the    determination   to    do   the   necessary   work,    spend   the    necessary 


^''Charters,  W.  W.  Curriculum  Construction.  New  York:  The  Macmillan  Company, 
1925,  p.  38-39. 

'^After  each  of  the  objectives  listed  in  this  chapter,  reference  is  given  in  parenthesis 
to  the  learning  exercise  requesting  the  pupil  to  perform  some  activity.  The  exercises  referred 
to  are  given  in  numerical  order  beginning  on  p.   51. 


42  Bulletin  No.  39 

money,  and  do  the  necessary  studying  to  make  the  project  a  success 
(Exercises  1,  2,  3,  4,  7,  9) 

5.  Faith  in  scientific  methods  of  orchard  management,  vegetable 
growing,  and  so  on,  as  recommended  by  the  agricultural  experiment 
stations  (Exercises  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9) 

6.  Willingness  to  take  advantage  of  available  information  pertain- 
ing to  fruit  and  vegetable  growing,  such  as  is  found  in  bulletins  of 
experiment  stations,  in  farm  papers,  and  from  individuals  producing 
these  crops  successfully  (Exercises  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9) 

7.  Appreciation  of  the  large  amount  of  available  material  relating 
to  fruit  and  vegetable  growing,  such  as  the  materials  published  by 
experiment  stations,  reports  of  investigations  by  individuals,  and  so 
forth  (Exercises  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9)^- 

B.  Selecting  the  location  and  site 

8.  Knowledge  of  the  kinds  of  soils  best  suited  for  the  production 
of  fruits  and  vegetables  (Exercises  11,  12) 

9.  Knowledge  of  the  temperature  requirements  of  the  different 
fruits  and  vegetables  (Exercises  13,  14,  16) 

10.  Knowledge  of  the  moisture  requirements  of  the  different  fruits 
and  vegetables  (Exercises  13,  14) 

11.  Knowledge  of  the  capital,  labor,  and  information  necessary  to 
establish  an  orchard  and  to  operate  it  efficiently  (Exercise  10) 

12.  Knowledge  of  the  water  and  air  drainage  of  the  land  to  be 
used  in  the  production  of  fruits  and  vegetables  (Exercises  12,  15,  16) 

13.  Ability  to  provide  proper  water  drainage  for  the  orchard  and 
garden  (Exercises  12,  15) 

14.  Knowledge  of  the  effect  of  elevation  and  of  the  proximity  of 
large  bodies  of  water  on  the  production  of  fruits  and  vegetables,  espe- 
cially the  former  (Exercises  12,  15,  16) 

15.  Knowledge  of  the  reasons  for  the  success  or  failure  of  par- 
ticular fruit  and  vegetable  crops  in  the  community  (Exercises  12,  14, 
15,  16,  17,  18,  19,  20,  21) 

16.  Ability  to  avoid  locations  where  the  soil  may  be  infected  with 
soil  diseases,  such  as  fusarium  wilt  of  tomatoes,  cabbage  yellows,  and 
so  forth  (Exercises  17,  18,  19,  20,  21) 

17.  Ability  to  select  the  best  site  on  a  given  farm  for  fruits  and  I 
vegetables  (Exercise  22) 


^"General  patterns  of  conduct,  such  as  are  listed  under  each  of  the  units  in  this  chap- 
ter, may  be  concomitant  or  indirect  outcomes  of  all  of  the  learning  exercises.  The  teacher 
must  have  these  general  patterns  in  mind  when  assigning  learning  exercises  or  when  other- 
wise directing  the  pupil's  learning  activity.    See  p.   36f. 


Curriculum  Construction  43 

C.  Selecting  and  purchasing  seeds,  trees,  and  plants 

18.  Knowledge  of  the  reliability  of  dealers  and  growers  of  nursery 
stock  and  vegetable  seeds  (Exercises  23,  24) 

19.  Ability  to  understand  the  descriptions  used  in  nursery  and 
seedsmen's  catalogues  (Exercises  23,  25,  27) 

20.  Ability  to  select  the  kinds  and  varieties  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables best  suited  to  local  climatic  and  soil  conditions  (Exercises  23,  26, 
27,  28) 

21.  Ability  to  select  kinds  and  varieties  of  fruits  and  vegetables 
most  desirable  for  immediate  use  in  the  farm  home  (Exercises  23,  26, 
27,  28) 

22.  Ability  to  select  kinds  and  varieties  of  fruits  and  vegetables 
most  desirable  for  home  storage  for  use  during  the  winter  months 
(Exercises  23,  26,  27,  28) 

23.  Ability  to  select  the  kinds  and  varieties  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables best  suited  to  market  demands  (Exercises  23,  26,  27,  29) 

24.  Ability  to  determine  the  number  of  each  kind  of  trees  and 
bushes  to  include  in  the  orchard  and  small  fruit  garden  (Exercises  23, 
26,  27,  30,  32) 

25.  Ability  to  determine  the  amount  of  each  kind  and  variety  of 
vegetables  to  include  in  the  vegetable  garden  (Exercises  23,  26,  27, 
31,  32) 

26.  Ability  to  order  the  seeds,  plants,  and  trees  (Exercises  23,  25) 

D.  Making  plans  for  the  garden  and  orchard 

27.  Knowledge  of  habits  of  growth  and  time  of  maturity  of  vege- 
tables in  the  home  garden  (Exercise  33) 

28.  Ability  to  make  a  garden  plan  (Exercises  33,  34,  35) 

29.  Ability  to  make  a  plan  of  the  orchard  and  small  fruit  garden 
(Exercises  33,  36) 

30.  Appreciation  of  the  value  of  making  definite  plans  of  any  kind 
of  farm  work  before  the  season  opens  (Exercises  33,  37) 

31.  Appreciation  of  the  importance  of  carefully  thinking  over  the 
operation  of  the  farm  work  before  beginning  to  do  the  actual  job 
(Exercises  33,  37) 

Types  of  materials  of  instruction.  Materials  of  instruction  are  the 
tangible  or  observable  things  which  a  student  uses  in  the  course  of  his 
learning  activities.  They  include  textbooks,  maps,  charts,  farm  ani- 
mals, trees,  w^oods,  rivers,  factories,  adult  activities  in  the  community 
that  may  be  visited,  and  so  on.  Materials  of  instruction  are  not  learn- 
ing exercises,  but  they  afi:'ord  a  basis  for  learning  exercises.    Materials 


44  Bulletin"  Xo.  39 

of  instruction  are  the  things  on  which  the  curricukim-maker  has  his 
attention  centered  in  building  a  curriculum.  He  selects  materials  of 
instruction  for  the  learning  activities  of  the  pupil  so  that  the  latter 
may  develop  certain  controls  of  conduct  which  in  turn  determine 
future  conduct  or  behavior.  Stating  it  in  another  way,  the  learner 
uses  materials  of  instruction  in  his  learning  activities  to  develop  certain 
controls  of  conduct  which  in  turn  will  determine  his  future  behavior. 
A  learning  exercise  comes  first  in  the  chain  just  suggested.  Xot  until 
the  learning  exercise  is  comprehended  by  the  learner  does  he  make  use 
of  the  materials  of  instruction  in  his  learning  activities. 

The  definition  of  materials  of  instruction  just  given  is.  of  course, 
very  general.  Something  simpler  is  needed  to  make  the  term  more 
clear.  ^^laterials  of  instruction  may  be  divided  into  four  main  groups^^ 
as  follows  : 

A.  A'erbal  statements 

B.  \'isual  aids 

C.  Apparatus 

D.  Extra-school  environment 

■■\'erbal  statements"  are  things  that  the  pupil  may  read  or  hear. 
Included  under  this  head  is  probably  the  most  important  of  the  ma- 
terials of  instruction;  namely,  the  textbook.  Supplementar\-  reading 
materials,  such  as  magazines,  books  other  than  texts,  newspapers, 
bulletins,  and  so  forth,  are  included  under  "verbal  statements."  as  are 
also  the  spoken  words  of  the  teacher  or  others. 

'■\'isual  aids"  are  materials  that  the  pupil  observes  but  does  notJ 
manipulate.    Included  under  the  heading  come  such  things  as  maps,] 
charts,  pictures,  moving  pictures,  demonstration  apparatus,  and  so  on. 
They  are  used  by  the  teacher  or  someone  other  than  the  class. 

"Apparatus"  is  the  term  applied  to  the  materials  the  pupil  handles] 
or  uses.     Some  of  these  may  have  been  used  by  the  teacher  as  visual 
aids  before  the  pupil  uses  them.    For  instance,  the  class  in  horticulture 
may  first  observe  a  demonstration  put  on  by  the  teacher  or  someone] 
else  in  pruning  an  apple  or  peach  tree,  in  the  mixing  of  spray  materials,] 
in  the  manipulation  of  a  spray  gun  or  rod,  or  in  any  of  the  things 
which  may  make  up  the  laboratory  work  in  horticulture.     The  pupil 
may  then  be  required  to  handle  or  use  some  of  the  apparatus  itself  as  a 
part  of  his  learning  activity. 


"These  groups  of  materials  of  instruction  are  referred  to  again  on  p.  J  If.,  where 
each  learning  exercise  is  followed  by  a  reference  containing  one  or  more  of  the  letters  A.  B, 
C,  and  D.  These  letters  refer  to  the  groups  of  materials  of  instruction  herein  described; 
namely,  A  refers  to  verbal  statements,  B  to  visual  aids,  C  to  apparatus,  and  D  to  extra-school 
environment. 


I 


Curriculum  Construction  45 

"Extra-school  environment"  includes  such  things  as  adult  activities 
in  the  community  which  may  be  visited  by  the  pupil  as  part  of  his 
learning  activity.  The  pupil  in  horticulture  may  need  to  visit  orchards, 
gardens,  or  farms  near  the  school  to  study  various  operations  in  horti- 
culture. When  a  study  is  being  made  of  the  selection  of  land  to  be 
used  for  growing  peaches,  for  instance,  the  class  may  visit  several 
good  peach-growing  sites,  and  some  poor  ones,  too.  The  teacher  may 
supplement  the  laboratory  w^ork  in  the  construction  of  hotbeds  or  cold- 
frames  by  taking  his  class  to  study  the  methods  of  a  market-gardener 
or  truck-grower  who  is  producing  a  large  number  of  plants  under  glass 
and  who  has  equipment  that  would  emphasize  points  of  importance. 

Outcomes  resulting  from  use  of  materials  of  instruction.  There 
are  two  general  types  of  outcomes  resulting  from  the  proper  use  of 
the  materials  of  instruction  in  horticulture  that  the  curriculum-maker 
and  teacher  must  recognize.  These  are  intrinsic  outcomes  and  con- 
comitant outcomes.  Intrinsic  outcomes  are  those  which  are  intimately 
connected  with  particular  items  of  materials  of  instruction;  for  ex- 
ample, certain  specific  habits  or  skills.  For  instance,  in  the  use  of 
apparatus  such  as  a  small  garden  sprayer,  a  definite  type  of  skill  will 
be  acquired  by  the  pupil.  In  operating  a  wheel-hoe  skill  may  also  be 
acquired.  In  the  use  of  textbooks  and  other  verbal  statements,  knowl- 
edge may  be  acquired  by  the  pupil.  These  are  the  outcomes  resulting 
from  the  use  of  the  particular  materials  of  instruction  and  no  other. 

Other  outcomes,  such  as  general  patterns  of  conduct — ideals,  atti- 
tudes, tastes,  interests,  and  so  forth — are  somewhat  independent  of  the 
materials  of  instruction.  As  explained  before,  a  general  pattern  of 
conduct  is  a  control  that  functions  in  a  variety  of  situations  and  which 
stimulates  one  to  make  his  conduct  conform  to  a  pattern.  An  ideal  of 
accuracy  or  of  honesty  may  have  a  marked  influence  upon  one's  con- 
duct. A  desire  to  do  a  thing  is  a  potent  factor  in  determining  behavior. 
For  example,  a  pupil  in  horticulture  may  possess  the  knowledge  and 
j  skill  required  to  treat  seed  potatoes  with  corrosive  sublimate  for  scab 
before  planting,  but  he  is  not  likely  to  apply  these  controls  of  conduct 
unless  he  has  a  desire  to  do  so  or  possesses  the  ideal  of  a  field  of  clean, 
j  marketaVjle  potatoes  as  a  result  of  his  activity,  the  preference  for  clean 
potatoes  rather  than  scabby  ones,  or  some  such  general  pattern  of 
conduct. 

Principles  governing  the  selection  of  materials  of  instruction. 
Those  materials  of  instruction  must  be  selected  that  will  be  most  effec- 
tive in  engendering  the  controls  of  conduct  that  have  been  agreed  upon 
as  the  immediate  or  control  objectives  of  horticulture.   There  are  some 


46  Bulletin  Xo.  39 

materials  of  instruction  that  will  be  more  effective  in  engendering 
certain  controls  than  will  others.  For  example,  if  the  curriculum  had 
for  one  of  its  immediate  objectives  the  attainment  of  skill  in  pruning 
grape  vines,  the  most  efficient  materials  of  instruction  for  the  ac- 
complishment of  this  skill  would  be:  an  unpruned  vineyard,  pruning 
shears,  the  teacher's  directions,  and  probably  some  pictures  illustrating 
what  was  wanted.  Obviously,  this  skill  could  not  be  acquired  by  the 
pupil  from  reading  a  book  or  by  listening  to  a  lecture.  Practice  in 
doing  the  job  alone  would  engender  the  skill  desired.  If  knowledge  of 
the  life  habits  of  the  Colorado  potato  beetle  were  to  be  acquired, 
pictures,  charts,  and  the  actual  live  specimens,  accompanied  by  the 
teacher's  explanation  might  be  very  efficient  materials  of  instruction, 
while  a  very  technical  textbook  in  entomology  might  be  of  little  aid 
to  the  high-school  pupil. 

Learning  takes  place  most  effectively  and  economically  under  con- 
ditions which  are  vital  and  worth  while  to  the  learner}*'  This  means 
that  those  materials  of  instruction  should  be  selected  that  will  contain 
much  of  the  factor  of  lifelikeness  or  of  naturalness.  The  learner 
should  feel  that  the  situation  is  worthy  of  his  efforts  and  attention. 
Learning  is  best  acquired  when  the  pupil  identifies  himself  most  com- 
pletely with  the  thing  to  be  learned.  This  is  not  always  possible  since 
some  activities  in  the  field  of  horticulture  are  not  intrinsically  inter- 
esting. However,  interest  may  often  be  stimulated  by  the  type  of 
materials  used.  For  example,  the  pruning  of  young  apple  trees  in  an 
orchard  would  be  a  more  lifelike  situation  than  the  pruning  of  a  few 
branches  or  small  trees  brought  into  the  laboratory.  Again,  to  en- 
gender in  the  pupil  the  ability  to  select  a  good  orchard  site,  a  visit  to 
several  places  in  the  community  would  be  more  lifelike  and  interesting 
than  reading  about  this  topic  or  studying  pictures  showing  orchard 
sites. 

The  materials  of  instruction  in  horticulture  shoidd  he  adapted  to  i 
the  interests  and  needs  of  the  pupil.  Counts  emphasizes  a  principle] 
similar  to  the  one  above  when  he  says,  " Nothing  should  be  included  in] 
the  curriculum  merely  because  it  is  of  interest  to  children ;  but  what- 
ever is  included  should  be  brought  into  the  closest  possible  relation 
with  their  interests. "^'^  In  the  curriculum  in  horticulture  the  class  mayj 
be  studving  certain  diseases  of  tomatoes — wilt  disease — for  instance. 


^^Counts  says,  "Learning  is  prosecuted  most  effectively  when  the  individual  identifies 
himself  most  completely  with  the  thing  to  be  learned.  Only  under  these  conditions  is  ther^ 
neither  dispersion  of  attention  nor  dissipation  of  energy." 

Counts,  Geo.  S.  "Notes  on  the  Foundations  of  Curriculum-making."  The  Twentyi 
Sixth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  II.  Bloomington^ 
Illinois:     Public  School  Publishing  Company,   1926,  p.   79. 

'^Counts,  op.  cit.,  p.  80. 


Curriculum  Construction  47 

One  kind  of  materials  of  instruction  would  be  pictures  or  slides  show- 
ing this  wilt  disease.  Another  kind  would  be  the  teacher's  description 
of  the  disease.  Another  and  far  more  interesting  kind  of  materials  of 
instruction  would  be  actual  tomato  plants  infected  with  the  disease. 

The  materials  of  instruction  should  also  be  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
the  pupil.  They  should  be  of  such  a  nature  that  the}^  will  be  of  use  to 
the  pupil  in  his  out-of -school  life.  For  example,  in  constructing  a 
hotbed,  it  would  be  of  little  value  to  most  pupils  to  construct  one  to 
be  heated  by  steam  or  hot  water  since  such  materials  are  seldom  avail- 
able on  the  farm.  The  construction  of  a  simple  manure  hotbed  would 
afford  more  practical  training  for  boys  in  a  rural  community.  The 
adaptation  of  the  materials  of  instruction  to  a  pupil's  out-of-school  life 
is  also  important  in  other  school  subjects,  but  sometimes  the  use  of 
unusual  materials  of  instruction  is  justified  for  exploratory  purposes. 
For  example,  in  manual  training  the  pupil  often  has  the  use  of  planers, 
jointers,  sanding  machines,  and  so  forth,  in  his  school  work  which  he 
will  probably  never  have  opportunity  to  use  out  of  school  unless  he 
finds  employment  in  the  wood- working  industry.  The  only  justification 
for  such  elaborate  materials  of  instruction  would  be  for  exploratory 
purposes.  That  is,  the  pupil  may  be  introduced  to  such  materials  so 
that  he  may  be  helped  to  determine  the  field  of  work  for  which  he  is 
best  suited.  However,  the  curriculum-maker  should  keep  in  mind  this 
factor  of  the  needs  of  the  pupil,  especially  out  of  school,  in  selecting 
materials  of  instruction  in  horticulture. 

These  two  principles — the  one  just  discussed  and  the  principle  of 
lifelikeness — are  very  closely  related  to  each  other.  It  is  believed, 
however,  that  each  is  of  sufficient  value  in  horticulture  to  be  considered 
as  a  separate  principle. 

Only  those  materials  of  instruction  should  be  selected  which  are 
reasonably  available  and  zvhich  are  zvithin  the  means  of  the  school  and 
the  pupil.  The  materials  of  instruction  should  be  readily  obtainable 
when  wanted  without  the  loss  of  much  time  or  effort.  The  pupil's 
time  is  valuable.  It  would  be  unwise  to  have  him  spend  a  great  amount 
of  time  and  energy  journeying  to  visit  a  distant  commercial  plantation 
of  asparagus  or  rhubarb,  for  instance,  when  such  materials  could  be 
obtained  closer  to  the  school,  even  if  not  in  exactly  the  form  or  quan- 
tity considered  the  most  desirable.  It  seems  that  there  should  be  no 
question  but  that  the  materials  of  instruction  should  be  obtainable  with- 
out too  great  an  expense  to  the  school  or  the  pupil.  The  discussion  on 
he  phases  covered  under  this  principle  seems  to  resolve  itself  into  this 
—the  materials  of  instruction  must  be  practical. 


48  Bulletin  No.  39 

Materials  of  instruction  should  be  selected  that  are  suited  to  the 
qualifications  of  the  teachers  of  vocational  agricidture.  While  this 
principle  is  undoubtedly  important  in  the  construction  of  curricula  for 
many  high-school  subjects,  it  can  scarcely  be  considered  very  import- 
ant in  the  field  of  vocational  agriculture  of  which  horticulture  is  a  part. 
Teachers  in  vocational  agriculture  are  required  by  ruling  of  the  State 
Board  of  Vocational  Education  to  be  graduates  of  agricultural  colleges 
whose  work  is  of  acceptable  quality.  These  young  men  should  be  able 
to  handle  any  of  the  materials  that  could  be  used  in  teaching  horticul- 
ture to  classes  of  high-school  pupils.  For  this  reason  the  factor  of 
qualifications  of  the  teachers  is  not  important. 

Organization  of  the  materials  of  instruction.  After  the  objectives 
of  horticulture  have  been  determined  and  the  materials  of  instruction 
which  the  pupil  is  to  use  in  acquiring  the  desired  controls  of  conduct 
have  been  selected,  the  next  problem  is  "How  shall  these  selected 
materials  of  instruction  be  organized  for  teaching  purposes?"  This 
question  might  be  answered  generally  by  saying  that  the  materials  of 
instruction  should  be  so  grouped  and  distributed  that  in  using  them  in 
his  learning  activities  the  pupil  will  acquire  the  desired  controls.  The 
principles  that  have  guided  the  writer  in  the  organization  of  the  ma- 
terials of  instruction  refer  to  the  following  factors : 

1.  The  time  to  be  given  to  the  various  units  of  horticulture 

2.  Consideration  of  other  subjects  in  the  school 

3.  The  best  time  for  using  a  given  unit  of  materials  of  instruction 

4.  The  best  place  for  using  a  given  unit  of  materials  of  instruction 

5.  The  best  method  of  using  a  given  unit  of  materials  of  instruc- 

tion 
In  the  organization  of  the  materials  of  instruction  in  horticulture 
the  first  thing  to  consider  is  the  amount  of  time  which  shall  he  given 
to  the  different  units  of  horticulture.  Horticulture,  as  has  been  ex- 
plained in  an  earlier  part  of  this  thesis,  is  composed  of  several  units. 
In  regard  to  the  time  to  be  given  to  the  different  units  which  have  been 
decided  upon  as  a  part  of  the  curriculum,  the  writer  has  aimed  to 
emphasize  those  of  greatest  value  to  the  community.  How  much  time 
is  a  unit  worth?  In  the  central  part  of  the  State,  the  Corn-Belt,  the 
dominant  t\'pes  of  agriculture  are  grain  and  livestock  farming.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  there  is  little  interest  in  horticultural  activities  except 
in  the  production  of  vegetables  and  fruits  for  home  use.  The  teacher 
must  determine  just  what  phases  of  these  horticultural  activities  are 
most  suitable  to  his  school  and  community,  and  emphasize  these  ac- 
tivities.    For  instance,  if  he  feels  that  potato  growing  should  receive 


I 


Curriculum  Construction  49 

considerable  attention  he  can  use  more  time  for  this  phase  of  horticul- 
ture and  cut  down  on  his  time  for  something  else.  If  an  improvement 
in  the  home  orchards  of  the  community  is  felt  to  be  necessary,  the 
teacher  may  emphasize  the  abilities  leading  to  the  attainment  of  this 
condition. 

In  the  organization  of  the  materials  of  instruction,  consideration 
must  he  given  to  other  subjects  in  the  high  school.  There  are  many 
materials  of  instruction  that  might  advantageously  be  included  in  the 
curriculum  if  horticulture  were  the  only  subject  in  the  school.  There 
are  many  places  that  could  be  visited,  such  as  distant  orchards,  gardens, 
farms,  stores,  warehouses,  and  so  on,  which  would  require  so  much  time 
that  the  pupil  would  have  to  neglect  other  school  work.  Certain  class 
projects,  such  as  the  care  of  a  large  orchard,  the  production  of  several 
acres  of  potatoes,  and  the  spraying  of  fruit  trees  in  the  community, 
might  involve  the  use  of  excellent  materials  of  instruction;  namely,  the 
large  orchard,  the  field  of  potatoes,  the  fruit  trees  in  the  community 
that  need  spraying,  and  the  equipment  necessary  to  care  for  these 
things.  But  if  the  use  of  these  materials  of  instruction  would  conflict 
with  other  valuable  work  of  the  school,  it  might  be  best  to  leave  them 
out  of  the  curriculum,  or  to  adopt  other  materials  that  would  take  less 
time. 

The  curriculum-maker  should  determine  the  best  time  for  using 
a  given  unit  of  the  materials  of  instruction.  In  organizing  the  ma- 
terials of  instruction  the  question  "When  shall  a  given  unit  of  materials 
be  used  as  a  basis  for  learning  exercises?"  is  an  important  one  in  hor- 
ticulture. There  is  undoubtedly  one  time  that  is  better  than  any  other 
time  to  introduce  a  given  unit  of  the  materials  of  instruction.  In  horti- 
culture the  seasonal  use  of  materials  of  instruction  will  be  most  life- 
like or  natural.  In  engendering  the  ability  to  prune  young  peach  trees, 
for  instance,  the  early  spring  would  be  the  most  seasonal  time  to  per- 
form this  job.  The  orchardist  would  do  the  job  at  that  time.  In  the 
construction  of  a  hotbed,  the  early  spring  or  late  winter  would  be  the 
time  the  vegetable  gardener  would  be  doing  this  job.  The  pupil  would 
be  most  interested  in  using  such  materials  at  or  as  near  as  practical  to 
the  time  the  hotbed  would  actually  be  needed.  To  make  a  hotbed  in 
the  early  fall  would  be  to  perform  this  job  out  of  season.  In  the  use 
of  the  materials  of  instruction  for  the  dormant  spraying  of  apple  trees 
for  San  Jose  scale,  these  materials  should  be  used  in  the  winter  or 
early  spring  at  or  near  the  time  the  apple  grower  would  be  performing 
the  operation.  This  factor  of  season  not  only  affects  the  naturalness 
of  the  materials  of  instruction  but  it  is  closer  to  the  needs  of  the  pupil. 


50  Bulletin  No.  39 

The  curriculum-maker  should  determine  where  the  materials  of 
instruction  are  to  be  used.  This  principle  is  similar  to  the  one  just  dis- 
cussed. In  organizing  the  materials  of  instruction,  the  question  of  the 
place  in  which  to  use  the  materials  is  important.  Shall  all  of  the  ma- 
terials of  instruction  be  brought  to  the  classroom  or  school  laboratory, 
or  shall  the  class  be  taken  to  visit  the  place  where  the  proper  materials 
are  found?  Some  materials  are  best  used  in  their  natural  setting.  Ex- 
amples of  this  type  of  materials  of  instruction  are  found  in  many  of 
the  horticultural  specimens  with  which  the  pupil  must  work.  Again 
using  the  young  peach  trees  as  the  materials  of  instruction  for  en- 
gendering ability  to  prune  this  type  of  tree,  the  factor  of  lifelikeness 
would  be  greatest  if  the  peach  trees  were  used  in  the  peach  orchard 
rather  than  if  specimens  were  brought  into  the  classroom.  Under  this 
principle,  too,  the  needs  of  the  pupil  are  better  met  if  he  goes  into  the 
peach  orchard  to  learn  how  to  prune  the  trees. 

TJic  curriculum-maker  should  indicate  the  best  method  for  using 
a  given  unit  of  materials  of  instruction.  How  shall  the  materials  of 
instruction  be  used  by  the  pupil?  In  engendering  the  ability  to  con- 
struct a  vegetable  storage  pit,  for  instance,  shall  each  pupil  actually 
perform  the  various  operations  himself  or  shall  the  class  observe  a 
demonstration  put  on  by  the  teacher  and  one  or  two  others?  Again 
referring  to  the  example  cited  before,  the  pruning  of  young  peach 
trees,  the  curriculum-maker  must  determine  whether  a  demonstration 
by  the  teacher  or  the  actual  doing  of  the  pruning  by  each  member  of 
the  class  would  be  best.  Undoubtedly,  the  latter  case  would  be  most 
lifelike  for  the  pupil,  and  best  suited  to  the  needs  of  his  after-school 
life.  There  are  many  other  factors  under  this  simple  principle  which 
require  study.  In  pruning  the  young  peach  trees,  several  types  of 
materials  of  instruction  might  be  used.  The  teacher  might  give  a 
lecture  on  pruning  of  the  trees,  followed  by  a  demonstration  by  him- 
self, and  then  have  the  members  of  the  class  do  the  job.  Or  he  might 
take  his  class  directly  to  the  orchard  and  have  them  tackle  the  job 
after  they  had  made  a  study  of  illustrative  material  in  texts  or  bul- 
letins. The  curriculum-maker  should  indicate  which  method  is  best  in 
his  organization  of  the  materials  of  instruction. 

The  learning  exercises.  The  learning  exercises  determined  are 
illustrated  b}"  the  following  which  are  proposed  as  a  basis  for  the  at- 
tainment of  the  first  objective  given  on  page  39. 


Curriculum  Construction  51 

PLANNING  THE  WORK 

A.  Deciding  to  have  a  garden  or  orchard 

1.  Study  in  textbook  and  in  bulletins  the  value  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables in  the  human  diet;  (Materials  A;  objectives  1,  4)^® 

2.  Inquire  of  teacher  of  home  economics  or  others  the  importance 
of  vitamins,  proteins,  etc.  in  the  diet;  (Materials  A;  objectives  1,  4) 

3.  Listen  to  a  lecture  and  study  in  textbook  the  economic  import- 
ance of  fruits  and  vegetables  in  the  United  States,  in  Illinois,  and  in 
the  county  or  community;  (Materials  A;  objectives  2,  4) 

4.  Listen  to  a  talk  on  the  work  of  such  agencies  as  agricultural 
colleges,  experiment  stations,  and  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  in  improving  varieties  and  methods  of  producing  market- 
ing fruits  and  vegetables;  (Materials  A;  objectives  3,  4,  5,  6,  7) 

5.  Examine  publications  of  own  state  experiment  station  to  get 
an  idea  of  its  work  in  improving  varieties  and  methods  of  producing 
and  marketing  fruits  and  vegetables;  (Materials  A;  objectives  3,  5,  7) 

6.  Obtain  information  from  home  or  elsewhere  of  the  work  of 
experiment  station,  agricultural  college  and  other  extension  agencies 
in  the  community;  (Materials  A;  objectives  3,  5,  6,  7) 

7.  Listen  to  a  discussion  of  the  successes  of  individuals  in  the 
community  who  have  followed  the  advice  of  such  educational  agencies 
as  the  agricultural  college,  experiment  station,  etc.;  (Materials  A;  ob- 
jectives 3,  4,  5,  6,  7) 

8.  Visit  successful  growers  of  fruits  and  vegetables  in  the  com- 
munity who  have  made  a  success  in  their  horticultural  activities.  Ob- 
tain from  them  their  opinions  of  the  importance  of  the  agricultural 
college,  experiment  station,  etc.;  (Materials  D;  objectives  3,  4,  5,  6,  7) 

9.  Examine  a  few  farm  papers  or  magazines  and  note  emphasis 
placed  upon  horticultural  activities;  (Materials  A;  objectives  3,  4,  5, 
6,7) 

B.  Selecting  the  location  and  site 

10.  Listen  to  a  lecture  regarding  the  capital,  labor,  and  informa- 
tion necessary  to  establish  and  operate  an  orchard;  (Materials  A;  ob- 
jective 11) 


^^The  first  part  of  the  parenthetical  statement  refers  to  the  type  of  materials  of  in- 
struction to  be  used.  (See  p.  4+.)  The  second  part  of  the  reference  refers  to  the  objective  or 
control  of  conduct  which  is  to  be  the  outcome  of  the  pupil  activity  resulting  from  the  learning 
exercise  given.  (See  p.  41  f.)  For  example,  Material  A  indicates  that  verbal  statements  are 
the  materials  of  instruction  used  in  this  exercise.  Objective  1  means  that  this  exercise  will 
contribute  to  bringing  about  the  ability  indicated,  which  is  as  follows:  "Knowledge  of  the 
value  of  fruits  and  vegetables  for  food,  such  as  their  importance  in  supplying  necessary 
proteins,  fats,  minerals,  vitamins,  and  so  forth."  It  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  this  exer- 
cise will  result  in  the  desired  outcome,  but  it  will,  at  least,  make  some  contribution  towards 
the  desired  result. 


52  Bulletin  Xo.  39 

11.  Study  in  textbook  and  bulletins  and  discuss  the  kinds  of  soils 
best  suited  for  the  production  of  fruits  and  vegetables;  (Materials  A; 
objective  8) 

12.  Visit  several  orchard  sites  in  the  community.  Pick  out  the 
most  desirable  sites  for  orchards  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  proper 
soil  and  air  drainage,  the  proximit}^  to  large  bodies  of  water,  etc. ; 
(Materials  C;  objectives  8,  12,  13,  14,  15) 

13.  Study  in  textbook  and  discuss  the  temperature  and  moisture 
requirements  of  different  fruits  and  vegetables;  (Materials  A;  objec- 
tives 9,  10) 

14.  Study  records  of  weather  bureau  to  determine  climatic  charac- 
teristics of  the  community;  (Materials  A;  objectives  9,  10,  15) 

15.  Study  the  water  drainage  of  sites  under  consideration  and 
recommend  methods  of  improving  it;  (Materials  C;  objectives  12,  13, 
14,  15) 

16.  Determine  the  importance  of  the  proximity  of  large  bodies 
of  water  in  the  production  of  fruits;  (Materials  A;  objectives  9,  12, 
14,15) 

17.  Make  a  list  of  fruits  and  vegetables  which  have  been  success- 
ful in  the  community  and  a  list  of  fruits  and  vegetables  which  have  not 
proved  successful;  (Materials  A;  objectives  15,  16) 

18.  Listen  to  a  lecture,  and  study  in  textbook  and  bulletins  the 
effect  of  soil  diseases  on  certain  crops;  (Materials  A;  objectives  15,  16) 

19.  Study  photographs  and  pictures  showing  the  effect  of  such 
soil  diseases  as  fusarium  wilt  of  tomatoes,  cabbage  yellows,  etc.;  (Ma-  \ 
terials  B;  objectives  15,  16) 

20.  Study  in  textbook,  and  discuss  the  methods  of  avoiding  loss 
because  of  soil  diseases;  (Materials  A;  objectives  15,  16) 

21.  On  field  trip  study  the  effect  of  soil  diseases  on  certain  crops, 
such  as  fusarium  disease  on  tomatoes,  cabbage  yellows  on  cabbage, 
etc.;  (Materials  C,  D;  objectives  15,  16) 

22.  On  a  field  trip  to  a  nearby  farm,  select  the  best  site  for  the 
home  orchard  and  the  small  fruit  and  vegetable  gardens,  considering 
all  factors  brought  out  previously;  (Materials  C;  objective  17) 

C.  Selecting  and  purchasing  seeds,  trees,  and  plants 

23.  Study  seedsmen's  and  nursery  catalogues;  (Materials  A;  ob- 
jectives 18  to  26,  incl.) 

24.  Listen  to  a  talk  on  the  reliability  of  dealers  and  growers  of 
nursery  stock  and  vegetable  seeds;  (Materials  A;  objective  18) 


Curriculum  Construction  53 

25.  Make  out  an  order  for  fruit  trees,  shrubs,  and  vegetable  seeds 
adapted  to  local  climatic  and  soil  conditions;  (Materials  C;  objectives 
19,  26) 

26.  Study  in  textbook  and  in  bulletins  amounts  and  kinds  of  fruits 
and  vegetables  most  desirable  for  immediate  use  in  the  farm  home, 
for  home  storage,  and  to  meet  the  market  demands ;  (Materials  A;  ob- 
jectives 20,  21,  22,  23,  24,  25) 

27.  Make  a  list  of  the  fruits  and  vegetables  most  desirable  for 
immediate  use,  for  home  storage,  and  to  meet  the  market  demands ; 
(Materials  A;  objectives  19  to  25,  incl.) 

28.  Examine  home  orchards  in  the  community  and  list  the  kinds 
and  varieties  of  fruits  included;  (Materials  C,  D;  objectives  20,  21,  22) 

29.  Examine  commercial  orchards  in  the  community  and  list  the 
kinds  and  varieties  of  fruits  included;  (Materials  C,  D;  objective  23) 

30.  Listen  to  a  lecture  and  study  in  textbook  and  bulletins  the 
number  of  each  kind  of  trees  and  bushes  to  include  in  the  orchard  and 
small  fruit  garden  for  a  family  of  a  given  size;  (Materials  A;  objec- 
tive 24) 

31.  Study  in  textbook  and  bulletins  the  amounts  of  each  kind  and 
variety  of  vegetable  to  include  in  the  home  vegetable  garden;  (Ma- 
terials A;  objective  25) 

32.  Determine  the  amount  of  each  kind  and  variety  of  fruits  and 
vegetables  for  the  home  of  each  member  of  the  class,  considering  the 
various  factors  involved;  (Materials  A,  C;  objectives  24,  25) 

D.  Making  plans  for  the  garden  and  orchard 

33.  Study  in  the  textbook  and  bulletins,  and  discuss  the  import- 
ance of  making  careful  plans  of  the  orchard,  small  fruit  garden,  or 
vegetable  garden;  (Materials  A;  objectives  27,  28,  29,  30,  31) 

34.  Examine  representative  plans  of  vegetable  gardens;  (Mater- 
ials A,  B  ;  objective  28) 

35.  Make  a  plan  for  a  vegetable  garden  to  serve  the  needs  of  your 
own  family;  (Materials  C;  objective  28) 

36.  Make  a  plan  of  an  orchard  and  small  fruit  garden  for  your 
own  family  needs;  (Materials  C;  objective  29) 

37.  Discuss  the  importance  of  careful  planning  in  any  kind  of 
farm  work,  especially  in  the  horticultural  activities  under  consider- 
ation; (Materials  A;  objectives  30,  31) 


